Lepidium Meyenii Walpers Research Articles

Physicochemical properties of maca starch

Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers) is gaining research attention due to its unique bioactive properties. Starch is a major component of maca roots, thus representing a novel starch source. In this study, the properties of three maca starches (yellow, purple and black) were compared with commercially maize, cassava, and potato starches. The starch granule sizes ranged from 9.0 to 9.6μm, and the granules were irregularly oval. All the maca starches presented B-type X-ray diffraction patterns, with the relative degree of crystallinity ranging from 22.2 to 24.3%. The apparent amylose contents ranged from 21.0 to 21.3%. The onset gelatinization temperatures ranged from 47.1 to 47.5°C as indicated by differential scanning calorimetry. Significant differences were observed in the pasting properties and textural parameters among all of the studied starches. These characteristics suggest the utility of native maca starch in products subjected to low temperatures during food processing and other industrial applications.

Lepidiline C and D: Two new imidazole alkaloids from Lepidium meyenii Walpers (Brassicaceae) roots

Lepidium meyenii Walpers, a well-known crop with a long history in Peru, has been utilized in the Andean region as foodstuff and medical supply. In our study, ethanol extract was obtained from the dried root of this plant and then chemically investigated. Two new imidazole alkaloids, namely, lepidiline C (1) and D (2), along with two known imidazole alkaloids (lepidiline A and B), were isolated through semi-preparative high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Their structures were elucidated through HPLC⿿mass spectrometry, 1D and 2D proton nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and ultraviolet spectrophotometry.

Effect of gamma irradiation on phenol content, antioxidant activity and biological activity of black maca and red maca extracts (Lepidium meyenii walp)

This study was performed to determine the effects of gamma irradiation on UV spectrum on maca, total content of polyphenols, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activities and in vivo biological activities of red and black maca extracts (Lepidium meyenii).Adult mice of the strain Swiss aged 3 months and weighing 30–35 g in average were used to determine biological activities. Daily sperm production, effect on testosterone-induced prostate hyperplasia and forced swimming test were used to determine the effect of irradiation on biological activities of maca extracts.Irradiation did not show differences in UV spectrum but improves the amount of total polyphenols in red maca as well as in black maca extracts. In both cases, black maca extract has more content of polyphenols than red maca extract (p < 0.01). Gamma irradiation significantly increased the antioxidant capacity (p < 0.05).No difference was observed in daily sperm production when irradiated and nonirradiated maca extract were administered to mice (p > 0.05). Black maca extract but not red maca extract has more swimming endurance capacity in the forced swimming test. Irradiation of black maca extract increased the swimming time to exhaustion (p < 0.05). This is not observed with red maca extract (p > 0.05). Testosterone enanthate (TE) increased significantly the ventral prostate weight. Administration of red maca extract in animals treated with TE prevented the increase in prostate weight. Irradiation did not modify effect of red maca extract on prostate weight (p > 0.05).In conclusion, irradiation does not alter the biological activities of both black maca and red maca extracts. It prevents the presence of microorganisms in the extracts of black or red maca, but the biological activities were maintained.

Detection of adulteration in Maca dietary supplements using NMR spectroscopy

Maca, Lepidium meyenii Walpers (Brassicaceae), is a perennial, herbaceous plant grown on the high Andean plateaus. Its small, turnip-like root has been traditionally used as food. In recent years, maca has been used as an aphrodisiac, energizer, fertility enhancer, and is a so-called natural Viagra or Peruvian ginseng. As maca products have gained increasing popularity throughout the world, both the demand and price have increased dramatically. A global shortage of maca plant material has resulted in the commercial sale of seriously adulterated dietary supplements. In the present study, a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopic method was developed to assess the quality of maca products sold on the market. The method can be used as a rapid tool for detection of maca adulteration.

Bioactive maca (Lepidium meyenii) alkamides are a result of traditional Andean postharvest drying practices

Maca, Lepidium meyenii Walpers (Brassicaceae), is an annual herbaceous plant native to the high plateaus of the Peruvian central Andes. Its underground storage hypocotyls have been a traditional medicinal agent and dietary staple since pre-Columbian times. Reported properties include energizing and fertility-enhancing effects. Published reports have focused on the benzylalkamides (macamides) present in dry hypocotyls as one of the main bioactive components. Macamides are secondary amides formed by benzylamine and a fatty acid moiety, with varying hydrocarbon chain lengths and degree of unsaturation. Although it has been assumed that they are usually present in fresh undamaged tissues, analyses show them to be essentially absent from them. However, hypocotyls dried by traditional Andean postharvest practices or industrial oven drying contain up to 800μgg−1 dry wt (2.3μmolg−1 dry wt) of macamides. In this study, the generation of macamides and their putative precursors were studied during nine-week traditional drying trials at 4200m altitude and in ovens under laboratory conditions. Freeze–thaw cycles in the open field during drying result in tissue maceration and release of free fatty acids from storage and membrane lipids up to levels of 1200μgg−1 dry wt (4.3μmolg−1 dry wt). Endogenous metabolism of the isothiocyanates generated from glucosinolate hydrolysis during drying results in maximal benzylamine values of 4300μgg−1 dry wt (40.2μmolg−1 dry wt). Pearson correlation coefficients of the accumulation profiles of benzylamine and free fatty acid to that of macamides showed good values of 0.898 and 0.934, respectively, suggesting that both provide sufficient substrate for amide synthesis during the drying process.

Peruvian Maca: Two Scientific Names Lepidium Meyenii Walpers and Lepidium Peruvianum Chacon - Are They Phytochemically-Synonymous?

Using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LCMS) , profiles of the two isotypes labelled under the same common name Maca deposited in the Medicinal Plant Herbarium, in Australia and Poland, but identified under two different scientific names Lepidium meyenii Walpers (L. meyenii) and Lepidium peruvianum Chacon (L. peruvianum) are presented. The two isotypes correspond to two holotypes of Peruvian medicinal herb known under the same common name "Maca", as originally deposited in the Herbarium of San Marcos University in Lima, Peru dated back to 1843 and 1990 respectively. The results demonstrate distinct differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles and DNA sequences of the two researched Maca isotypes, suggesting that the two Maca specimens are dissimilar and formal use of the term “synonymous” to L. meyenii and L. peruvianum may be misleading. On the basis of presented results the scientific name L. meyenii, used since 1843 up-today for cultivated Peruvian Maca by numerous reference sources worldwide, including Regulatory Bodies in the USA, EU, Australia and most lately in China, appears to be used in error and should be formally revised. It is concluded, that the isotype of cultivated Peruvian Maca labelled under its scientific name Lepidium peruvianum Chacon, provides all the characteristics peculiar to this historically-documented herb grown in Andean highlands, which may be linked to its traditional use and accepted functionality, confirmed in recent clinical study to be relevant to its present day use for expected dietary, therapeutic and health benefits.

Effects on starch and amylolytic enzymes during Lepidium meyenii Walpers root storage.

The high water content in maca (Lepidium meyenii W.) roots combined with the damage produced during or after harvest makes them vulnerable to attack by enzymes and microorganisms. Although starch degradation has been extensively studied, in maca roots there is a paucity of research regarding the starch reserves. In this paper, parameters of starch degradation are shown to be related to the action of amylolytic enzymes during storage at room temperature. Over the course of three weeks, the starch and protein content, soluble sugar, total amylolytic activity, and α- and β-amylase activity were measured. In addition, the integrity of starch granules was observed by scanning electron microscopy. Despite the evidence of dehydration, there were no significant differences (p ≤ 0.5) in the total starch content or in the activities of α- and β-amylase. After the third week the roots remained suitable for consumption. The results indicate a postharvest latency that can lead to sprout or to senescence, depending on the environmental conditions.

Metabolomic Differentiation of Maca (Lepidium meyenii) Accessions Cultivated under Different Conditions Using NMR and Chemometric Analysis

To gain insights on the effects of color type, cultivation history, and growing site on the composition alterations of maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers) hypocotyls, NMR profiling combined with chemometric analysis was applied to investigate the metabolite variability in different maca accessions. Maca hypocotyls with different colors (yellow, pink, violet, and lead-colored) cultivated at different geographic sites and different areas were examined for differences in metabolite expression. Differentiations of the maca accessions grown under the different cultivation conditions were determined by principle component analyses (PCAs) which were performed on the datasets derived from their ¹H NMR spectra. A total of 16 metabolites were identified by NMR analysis, and the changes in metabolite levels in relation to the color types and growing conditions of maca hypocotyls were evaluated using univariate statistical analysis. In addition, the changes of the correlation pattern among the metabolites identified in the maca accessions planted at the two different sites were examined. The results from both multivariate and univariate analysis indicated that the planting site was the major determining factor with regards to metabolite variations in maca hypocotyls, while the color of maca accession seems to be of minor importance in this respect.

Effect of maca supplementation on bovine sperm quantity and quality followed over two spermatogenic cycles

Maca ( Lepidium meyenii Walpers), is an Andean crop that grows between 3,800 and 4,500 m a.s.l. The persistent interest in this plant is based on its assumed effects on fertility of male mammals due to the prevalence of certain, partially specific, secondary compounds. The present study aimed at evaluating the effect of maca supplementation on quality and quantity of semen, mating behavior, and clinical status of peripubertal breeding bulls. The experiment followed a cross-over design lasting for 23 wk with 3 wk of adaptation and baseline measurements, and 2 × 10 wk of treatment feeding thus covering two times the complete 8-wk spermatogenic cycle. Seventy-eight 55 wk to 84 wk old breeding bulls received either no maca (control) or maca (233 mg dried hypocotyls/kg body weight/day) for 10 wk followed by 10 wk without maca (maca early) or maca only in the last 10 wk (maca late). Measurements were always made in the last 2 wk of each period. Apart from standard analyses, ejaculates were analyzed by flow cytometry. Data was evaluated by analysis of variance considering the repeated measurement structure of the data. Significant treatment by measurement period indicated direct or carry-over effects of maca. Maca supplementation had no direct effect on body weight, testes circumference, rectal temperature, mating behavior, and ejaculate volume. However, supplementing maca in the first 10 wk period increased the number of sperms in the second 10 wk period, i.e., when the animals no longer received maca. The DNA fragmentation index and the visually assessed motility of the sperms of bulls, that initially showed a borderline sperm quality, were significantly improved with early maca supplementation, while no such effect was observed in the two other groups. No effects occurred in the proportion of intact sperm plasma membranes or acrosomes or both. In conclusion, maca supplementation seems to improve sperm quantity and quality of bulls to a certain degree, while mating behavior appears unaffected.

Metabolic Profiling of Maca (Lepidium meyenii) Cultivars using NMR and Multivariate Data Analysis

Maca, Lepidium meyenii Walpers (Family Brassicaceae), a perennial herbaceous plant found on high plateaus of the Andean mountain area in Peru, is an important staple for the Andean Indians and indigenous peoples.[1] Maca is reputed with properties of sexual enhancement and fertility improvement, as well as other effectiveness such as immunostimulation, antidepressant and anticancer. It is so called as „Peruvian ginseng“. Currently, a wide array of commercial maca products are gaining popularity as dietary supplements throughout the world. The cultivation of maca is increasing in the highlands of the Andes to meet the growing demand worldwide. Different maca cultivars with different colored roots and wild species have been found in Peru. Interestingly, it has been observed that different varieties of Maca have different biological properties.[2] NMR-based Metabolomics is emerging as a potential technology to provide better insight into the qualitative and quantitative shifts in metabolite patterns of the organism.[3] We reported here the investigation of the maca varieties collected from Peru by using NMR profiling and chemometric analysis.

Secondary Metabolites in Maca as Affected by Hypocotyl Color, Cultivation History, and Site

Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers) hypocotyls are reported to have a favorable biological activity in man. The presumed bioactive constituents seem to vary among maca hypocotyl color types, but the residual variation is large. This study tested the hypothesis that, apart from color types, environmental factors have a distinct influence on the concentration of characteristic secondary metabolites in maca. In a field experiment at 4100 m altitude (Peru), maca of four hypocotyl color types was evaluated at two sites with different soil types. At each site, experimental areas were either never cultivated or cultivated with maca 2 to 3 yr ago followed by a fallow period. Applying four color replicates per site and area resulted in 64 plots (100 plants plot−1). Especially color type largely influenced concentrations of macaene, macamides, β‐sitosterol, campesterol, and glucosinolates. Site (also clearly affecting growth yield) was weaker in effect on these metabolites but still significantly influenced concentrations of some constituents, while the effect of cultivation history was widely absent. Macaene, macamides, and β‐sitosterol were negatively correlated with glucosinolates. This shows that environmental conditions and color type have to be considered in producing maca with high concentrations of distinct bioactive metabolites.

Physical–chemical and functional properties of maca root starch ( Lepidium meyenii Walpers)

The starch of maca ( Lepidium meyenii Walpers) presented oval and irregular morphology, with granule size between 7.4 and 14.9 μm in length and 5.8 and 9.3 μm in diameter. The isolated starch showed the following features: purity of 87.8%, with 0.28% lipids, 0.2% fibre and 0.12% fixed mineral residue, and no protein detected; the ratio between the amylose and amylopectin contents were 20:80; the solubility at 90 °C was 61.4%, the swelling power was 119.0 g water/g starch and the water absorption capacity was 45.9 g water/g starch; the gel turbidity rose 44% during the storing time; the gelatinization temperature was 47.7 °C and the transition enthalpy 6.22 J/g; the maximum viscosity reached 1260 UB at 46.4 °C, with breakdown, setback and consistence of 850, 440 and −410 UB, respectively. The low gelling temperature and the stability during gel refrigeration could be adequate for foods requiring moderate temperature process, but not for frozen food.

Efecto de dietas artificiales en la biología de adultos de chrysoperla externa (hagen, 1861) (neuroptera: chrysopidae)

Se evaluó bajo condiciones de laboratorio el efecto de ocho dietassobre la biología de adultos de Chrysoperla externa (Hagen, 1861) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) con el fin de determinar una dieta artificial barata y efectiva. Una dieta estándar con levadura y siete constituidas por maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers), soya (Glycine max (Linnaeus) Merril) y kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus Linnaeus); en las siguientes combinaciones: levadura y maca; levadura y kiwicha; levadura y soya; levadura, maca y kiwicha; levadura, maca y soya; levadura, soya y kiwicha; y levadura, maca, soya y kiwicha fueron evaluadas con respecto a la biología de adultos de C. externa. Todas las dietas contenían miel de abejas, polen y agua. Se evaluó la influencia de las dietas de los adultos en la viabilidad de los huevos, capacidad de oviposición, ritmo de oviposición, periodo de pre-oviposición, periodo de oviposición, periodo de post-oviposición de las hembras y longevidad de hembras y machos, durante dos generaciones de C. externa. Las ocho dietas evaluadas obtuvieron una elevada viabilidad de huevos en condiciones de laboratorio. Sin embargo, las dietas estandarizada a base de levadura, levadura + kiwicha, y soya + kiwicha obtuvieron una más alta viabilidad de huevos. Las dietas a base de levadura, levadura + maca, levadura + kiwicha, y a base de maca y kiwicha fueron con las que se obtuvo la mayor capacidad de oviposición. En general, no existieron diferencias significativas entre los periodos de preoviposición, oviposición y post-oviposición bajo las ocho dietas artificiales para C. externa, con tendencia a ser más altos en la segunda generación. Las dietas de levadura con maca, levadura, maca, soya y kiwicha permitieron un aumento en la longevidad de las hembras y machos para la segunda generación.

Maca: An Andean crop with multi-pharmacological functions

Maca (Lepidium meyenii walp.), a biennial herbaceous plant of the family Brassicae, which is cultivated mainly in the central Andes of Peru, has been used as both a food and a traditional medicine in the region for over 2000 years. The subterranean parts of the plant have long been used as a staple foodstuff by indigenous peoples in the Andean region, but the plant is also valued for its medicinal role. As is usual with many traditional folk medicines, many claims have been made regarding the efficacy of maca in treating a wide range of illnesses and medical conditions. However, in the 20th century most scientific attention has been focused in the areas where the pharmacological actions of maca seem most strongly attested, these include, enhancement of sexual drive in humans, increasing overall vigour and energy levels, and increasing sexual fertility in humans and domestic livestock. Since the early days of the 20th century numerous scientific studies have been carried out into the basis of its pharmacological action in these areas. In this review, the composition and pharmacological function of maca are systematically discussed. Additionally, the current discussion surrounding its mode of action in the areas listed above is also presented. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Acute and Chronic Dosing of Lepidium meyenii (Maca) on Male Rat Sexual Behavior

The use of natural remedies for the treatment of sexual disorders is under current investigation. For generations people of the rural community in Peru have used Lepidium meyenii Walpers (Maca), because of their belief that it improves fertility and sexual desire. To determine the acute and chronic effects of Maca on male sexual behavior and to examine chronic administration of Maca on anxiety. Ejaculatory and mounting behavior and postejaculatory interval. Anxiety tests using an elevated plus maze, locomotion, and social interaction with another male. Maca (25 and 100 mg/kg) was orally administered to male rats for 30 days. Male sexual behavior was monitored after acute, 7 and 21 days of treatment. Anxiety behavior and locomotion were measured at 28-29 days using the elevated plus maze and social interaction tests. Maca treatment did not produce large changes in male sexual behavior. However, an increase in ejaculation latency and postejaculatory interval was observed after both acute and 7 days of treatment. After 21 days of treatment Maca had no effect on sexual behavior. Chronic administration of Maca did not increase locomotion or anxiety. Acute and short-term administration of Maca produced a small effect of rat male sexual behavior and long-term administration did not increase anxiety.

Determinación de aflatoxina total y ocratoxina a en maca seca y en harina de maca

Se ha determinado la concentración de aflatoxina total y ocratoxina A en la maca seca y en harina de maca (Lepidium meyenii walp), así como los factores fisicoquímicos y microbiológicos que influyen en su producción. Para ello, se ha recolectado muestras de 4 comunidades productoras y de 4 mercados principales. Los factores extrínsecos como temperatura y humedad relativa promedio son 10 °C y 52,5%, en las comunidades y 15°C y 71% en los mercados; estas condiciones hacen posible el crecimiento y desarrollo de Fusarium avenaceum,Penícillium corylophylum, P.commune, P.chrysogenum, Aspergillus níger, A.flavus, A.ochraceus, esclerotia de A. flavus, Rízophus y levaduras. Se ha determinado una concentración promedio de aflatoxina total, 0,829 ppb (Mg/kg), cifra que indica buena calidad de maca seca y la concentración promedio de ocratoxina A, 8,703 ppb, cifra que sobrepasa el límite máximo permitido por la legislación de Estados Unidos N° 123/2005. Los factores que influyen en la producción de ocratoxina A son los azúcares reductores y el pH. El promedio de hongos totales encontrado es 50 x 102 ufc/ g, y no es un factor influyente en la producción de esta micotoxina. Las muestras de comunidades tuvieron mayor cantidad de ocratoxína A y número de hongos que las muestras de los mercados. En harina de maca, el promedio de aflatoxina total es 12.453 ppb, encontrándose concentraciones altas en la harina tostada a granel del Mercado Central de Lima y los factores influyentes son humedad relativa, pH y acidez. El promedio de ocratoxina A es de 2.892 ppb, encontrándose concentraciones altas en la harina del Mercado de Chupaca, los factores influyentes son los azúcares reductores y el pH. Por otro lado, el número de hongos en harina de maca es 78 x 102 ufc/ g y es un factor influyente en la producción de aflatoxina total pero no en la producción de ocratoxina A.

Lepidium meyenii Walp. improves sexual behaviour in male rats independently from its action on spontaneous locomotor activity

Lepidium meyenii Walpers (Maca) is traditionally employed in the Andean region for its supposed properties to improve energy and fertility. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of acute and chronic Maca pulverised root oral administration on rat sexual behaviour. Sixty male sexually experienced rats (20 group) were daily treated for 15 days with Maca 15 mg kg −1, Maca 75 mg kg −1 or saline 0.5 ml kg −1. The following sexual performance parameters were evaluated at first and last day of treatment: 1st mount (ML), 1st intromission (IL), ejaculation (EL) and postejaculatory (PEL) latencies, intercopulatory interval (ICI) and copulatory efficacy (CE). An activity cage test was carried out to evaluate if Maca-induced locomotion changes could indirectly improve rat sexual performances. It was observed that both lower and higher Maca doses acutely decreased ML, IL and ICI in a significant way ( P<0.05), while only the 75 mg kg −1 dose decreased the PEL ( T=29, P<0.05). This effect seems to be the only one dose-dependent. After 15 days of treatment, both doses are able to significantly decrease ML, IL, EL and PEL, while the 75 mg kg −1 dose decreased the ICI ( T=40, P<0.05) too. IL, EL and PEL variations seem to be dose-related after chronic treatment. Moreover, chronic Maca treatment induced an apparently not dose-related increase in rat locomotion, during the second 10-min period of observation in the activity cage. The late in Maca-induced locomotion modification excludes that improvement of tested sexual performance parameters is related to an increase in rat aspecific activity. Thus, it was concluded that both acute and chronic Maca oral administration significantly improve sexual performance parameters in male rats.

Genetic Variability ofLepidium meyeniiand other AndeanLepidiumSpecies (Brassicaceae) Assessed by Molecular Markers

A phylogenetic survey based on similarity levels was performed for 29 cultivated accessions of maca (Lepidium meyeniiWalp.) and 27 accessions of wild species ofLepidiumfrom Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, with RAPD markers. Chromosome counts for each accession were also performed. The similarity tree matrix separated in two main branches: cultivated and wild species. The similarity level among cultivated accessions was high (0.952 or higher) indicating a low level of polymorphism. Within the wild species, two main secondary branches could be resolved, of which one was subdivided into two tertiary branches. Morphological evaluation of the wild species accessions within each main group identified three wild species: (1)L. bipinnatifidum, consisting mostly of tetraploids and a single octoploid accession; (2)L. kalenbornii, consisting only of tetraploid accessions; and (3)L. chichicara, consisting mostly of octoploid and a few tetraploid accessions. Clustering by principal coordinates analysis supported the results obtained by the similarity tree matrix. These results indicate that none of the three wild species is related enough to be considered ancestral to the cultivatedL. meyenii. Three accessions of intermediate position may be of hybrid origin. None of the wild species was found to be diploid, which suggests that polyploidy has been an important adaptation to high altitude habitats in these species.

Chemical composition of Lepidium meyenii

Lepidium meyenii Walpers, a tuber of Andine origin still cultivated in Peru for local preparation, was studied. The carbohydrate, lipid, protein, fibre and also the amino-acid, fatty acid, mineral and sterol fractions were determined. The results show that the tuber is nutritionally interesting. Alkaloid-like compounds were also found. It is concluded that this tuber can be a food source in countries, where economic and technological conditions are inadequate to combat malnutrition.