Onchocerciasis Research Articles

Towards building homeostasis through a low-cost biomimetic synthetic foam for building surface cooling and energy saving

Evaporative cooling has been demonstrated as one of the most effective means to reduce a building's energy consumption and achieve homeostasis in buildings without intensive energy demands. In this research, a novel biomimetic inorganic synthetic foam material (BMSF) was developed from reclaimed fly ash cenospheres for building surface cooling. The BMSF material is synthesized from an abundant industrial byproduct (i.e., fly ash cenosphere) through a low-cost and high-yield two-step process. X-ray microtopography (XRM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) tests revealed that BMSF has a microstructure that resembles that of the keratinous skin of African elephants and certain desert lizards to enable water to be stored and transported effectively through capillary actions. Experiments were carried out to quantify the evaporative behavior and cooling effect of the material and building roofs equipped with the BMSF panels. The experimental results indicate remarkable cooling performance – i.e., BMSF panels with protruded surfaces have higher evaporation rates than that of open water surface and a surface temperature reduction of 15 °C–25 °C was achieved. Lastly, case studies were carried out on a single-story commercial building in Los Angeles, California, and the results demonstrate that the new evaporative cooling surface material is able to achieve passive cooling for buildings in areas with a mild climate and low relative humidity.

Introduction history and hybridization determine the hydric balance of an invasive lizard facing a recent climate niche shift.

As anthropogenic activities are increasing the frequency and severity of droughts, understanding whether and how fast populations can adapt to sudden changes in their hydric environment is critically important. Here, we capitalize on the introduction of the Cuban brown anole lizard (Anolis sagrei) in North America to assess the contemporary evolution of a widespread terrestrial vertebrate to an abrupt climatic niche shift. We characterized hydric balance in 30 populations along a large climatic gradient. We found that while evaporative and cutaneous water loss varied widely, there was no climatic cline, as would be expected under adaptation. Furthermore, the skin of lizards from more arid environments was covered with smaller scales, a condition thought to limit water conservation and thus be maladaptive. In contrast to environmental conditions, genome-averaged ancestry was a significant predictor of water loss. This was reinforced by our genome-wide association analyses, which indicated a significant ancestry-specific effect for water loss at one locus. Thus, our study indicates that the water balance of invasive brown anoles is dictated by an environment-independent introduction and hybridization history and highlights genetic interactions or genetic correlations as factors that might forestall adaptation. Alternative water conservation strategies, including behavioral mitigation, may influence the brown anole invasion success and require future examination.

Biology of Vectors and Agent of Skin Disease and River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) In the World

Objectives: Blackflies are the aquatic insects. A total of 1800 species of this insect have been identified worldwide. The main important species is Simulium damnosum. They suck the blood of other animals and human. They spread several diseases, including river blindness (Onchocerciasis)) in Africa and America. The agent of disease is Onchocerca volvulus. The aim of this review article is to explain the bio ecology, medically importance, different control measures for agent and vector of disease and status of resistant to drug and insecticides in the agent and vector. Methods: In this research all, the relevant information regarding the topic of research is research through the internet and used in this paper. An intensive search of scientific literature was done in “PubMed”, “Web of Knowledge”, “Scopus”, “Google Scholar”, “SID”, etc. Results: The results indicated that this insect play an important role in disease worldwide. Ivermectine (Mectizan®) drug is an important for killing the agent of disease. Several larvicides recommended by WHO for vector control. Due to high use of drug and pesticide for control of disease , the resistant to drug and pesticide have been reported worldwide. Conclusion: Monitoring and mapping of drug and insecticide resistance is a major factor for disease control worldwide

Onchocerciasis: Current knowledge and future goals

Human Onchocerciasis, caused by infection by the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus, is a neglected public health disease that affects millions of people in the endemic regions of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. It is also called river blindness because the Blackflies that transmit infection breeds in rapidly flowing fresh water streams and rivers. This review features state-of-the-art data on the parasite, its endobacteria Wolbachia, the prevalence of the infection and its geographical distribution, its diagnostics, the interaction between the parasite and its host, and the pathology of Onchocerciasis. By development and optimization of the control measures, transmission by the vector has been interrupted in foci of countries in the Americas (Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Guatemala)and inSudan, followed by Onchocerciasis eliminations. The current state and future perspectives for vector control and elimination strategy are described.

Eosinophils in filarial infections: Inducers of protection or pathology?

Filariae are parasitic roundworms, which can cause debilitating diseases such as lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis. Lymphatic filariasis, also known as elephantiasis, and onchocerciasis, commonly referred to as river blindness, can lead to stigmatizing pathologies and present a socio-economic burden for affected people and their endemic countries. Filariae typically induce a type 2 immune response, which is characterized by cytokines, i.e., IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 as well as type 2 immune cells including alternatively activated macrophages, innate lymphoid cells and Th2 cells. However, the hallmark characteristic of filarial infections is a profound eosinophilia. Eosinophils are innate immune cells and pivotal in controlling helminth infections in general and filarial infections in particular. By modulating the function of other leukocytes, eosinophils support and drive type 2 immune responses. Moreover, as primary effector cells, eosinophils can directly attack filariae through the release of granules containing toxic cationic proteins with or without extracellular DNA traps. At the same time, eosinophils can be a driving force for filarial pathology as observed during tropical pulmonary eosinophilia in lymphatic filariasis, in dermatitis in onchocerciasis patients as well as adverse events after treatment of onchocerciasis patients with diethylcarbamazine. This review summarizes the latest findings of the importance of eosinophil effector functions including the role of eosinophil-derived proteins in controlling filarial infections and their impact on filarial pathology analyzing both human and experimental animal studies.

Biomechanical behaviour of lizard osteoderms and skin under external loading.

Many species of lizards are partially enveloped by a dermal armour made of ossified units called osteoderms. Lizard osteoderms demonstrate considerable species-specific variation in morphology and histology. Although a physical/protective role (against predators, prey, conspecifics and impact loading during falls) is frequently advanced, empirical data on the biomechanics of lizard osteoderms are scarce, limiting our understanding of form-function relationships. Here, we report deformation recorded at the surface of temporal osteoderms during controlled external loading of preserved specimens of 11 lizard species (Tiliqua rugosa, Tiliqua scincoides, Corucia zebrata, Pseudopus apodus, Timon lepidus, Matobosaurus validus, Broadleysaurus major, Tribolonotus gracilis, Tribolonotus novaeguineae, Heloderma horridum and Heloderma suspectum). Based on the strain recorded in situ and from isolated osteoderms, the skin of the species investigated can be ranked along a marked stiffness gradient that mostly reflects the features of the osteoderms. Some species such as T. rugosa and the two Heloderma species had very stiff osteoderms and skin while others such as T. lepidus and P. apodus were at the other end of the spectrum. Histological sections of the osteoderms suggest that fused (versus compound) osteoderms with a thick layer of capping tissue are found in species with a stiff skin. In most cases, loading neighbouring osteoderms induced a large strain in the instrumented osteoderm, attesting that, in most species, lizard osteoderms are tightly interconnected. These data empirically confirm that the morphological diversity observed in lizard osteoderms is matched by variability in biomechanical properties.

Skin wrinkles and folds enable asymmetric stretch in the elephant trunk

The elephant's trunk is multifunctional: It must be flexible to wrap around vegetation, but tough to knock down trees and resist attack. How can one appendage satisfy both constraints? In this combined experimental and theoretical study, we challenged African elephants to reach far-away objects with only horizontal extensions of their trunk. Surprisingly, the trunk does not extend uniformly, but instead exhibits a dorsal "joint" that stretches 15% more than the corresponding ventral section. Using material testing with the skin of a deceased elephant, we show that the asymmetry is due in part to patterns of the skin. The dorsal skin is folded and 15% more pliable than the wrinkled ventral skin. Skin folds protect the dorsal section and stretch to facilitate downward wrapping, the most common gripping style when picking up items. The elephant's skin is also sufficiently stiff to influence its mechanics: At the joint, the skin requires 13 times more energy to stretch than the corresponding length of muscle. The use of wrinkles and folds to modulate stiffness may provide a valuable concept for both biology and soft robotics.

Demonstration of Big Bang-like patterns through logic-implemented DNA algorithmic assembly

A DNA algorithm-based logic gate provides an efficient platform for generating various patterns through self-assembly. Self-assembly algorithms using M-input N-output logic gates are easily implemented in DNA tiles. The patterns generated by a 3-input 1-output logic gate show interesting features, such as demonstrations of mathematical functions, physical phenomena observed in nature, and logic operators. We notice that among the 3-input 1-output logic rules, the algorithmic lattices generated by R30 show interesting Big Bang-like patterns. A pattern generated by R30 and specific initial values shows expanding characteristics during the growth of lattices that resemble the Big Bang expansion of the universe. In this study, we demonstrate Big Bang-like patterns using simulations generated by R30 and analyze pattern sizes as a function of growth step number. We discuss pattern sizes and pattern-size-expansion-speeds, both of which are heavily influenced by perturbed initial values. We examine eight different perturbed initial values that induce Big Bang-like patterns with the generation of multiple pattern sizes during the growth of patterns. In addition, we fabricate patterns using DNA algorithmic self-assembly generated by the R30 logic rule with a 3-input 1-output logic operation. The generated algorithmic patterns are visualized by an atomic force microscope. Our method allows the generation and analysis of naturally occurring patterns, such as those found on lizard skin and Zelkova serrata lenticel patterns.

Crystal structure of an extracellular superoxide dismutase from Onchocerca volvulus and implications for parasite-specific drug development.

Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are metalloproteins that are responsible for the dismutation of superoxide anion radicals. SODs are consequently protective against oxidative damage to cellular components. Among other protective mechanisms, the filarial parasite Onchocerca volvulus has a well developed defense system to scavenge toxic free radicals using SODs during migration and sojourning of the microfilariae and adult worms in the human body. O. volvulus is responsible for the neglected disease onchocerciasis or `river blindness'. In the present study, an extracellular Cu/Zn-SOD from O. volvulus (OvEC-SOD) was cloned, purified and crystallized to obtain structural insight into an attractive drug target with the potential to combat onchocerciasis. The recombinant OvEC-SOD forms a dimer and the protein structure was solved and refined to 1.55 Å resolution by X-ray crystallography. Interestingly, a sulfate ion supports the coordination of the conserved copper ion. The overall protein shape was verified by small-angle X-ray scattering. The enzyme shows a different surface charge distribution and different termini when compared with the homologous human SOD. A distinct hydrophobic cleft to which both protomers of the dimer contribute was utilized for a docking approach with compounds that have previously been identified as SOD inhibitors to highlight the potential for individual structure-based drug development.

Co-Administration of Adjuvanted Recombinant Ov-103 and Ov-RAL-2 Vaccines Confer Protection against Natural Challenge in A Bovine Onchocerca ochengi Infection Model of Human Onchocerciasis.

Onchocerciasis (river blindness), caused by the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus, is a neglected tropical disease mainly of sub-Saharan Africa. Worldwide, an estimated 20.9 million individuals live with infection and a further 205 million are at risk of disease. Current control methods rely on mass drug administration of ivermectin to kill microfilariae and inhibit female worm fecundity. The identification and development of efficacious vaccines as complementary preventive tools to support ongoing elimination efforts are therefore an important objective of onchocerciasis research. We evaluated the protective effects of co-administering leading O. volvulus-derived recombinant vaccine candidates (Ov-103 and Ov-RAL-2) with subsequent natural exposure to the closely related cattle parasite Onchocerca ochengi. Over a 24-month exposure period, vaccinated calves (n = 11) were shown to acquire infection and microfilaridermia at a significantly lower rate compared to unvaccinated control animals (n = 10). Furthermore, adult female worm burdens were negatively correlated with anti-Ov-103 and Ov-RAL-2 IgG1 and IgG2 responses. Peptide arrays identified several Ov-103 and Ov-RAL-2-specific epitopes homologous to those identified as human B-cell and helper T-cell epitope candidates and by naturally-infected human subjects in previous studies. Overall, this study demonstrates co-administration of Ov-103 and Ov-RAL-2 with Montanide™ ISA 206 VG is highly immunogenic in cattle, conferring partial protection against natural challenge with O. ochengi. The strong, antigen-specific IgG1 and IgG2 responses associated with vaccine-induced protection are highly suggestive of a mixed Th1/Th2 associated antibody responses. Collectively, this evidence suggests vaccine formulations for human onchocerciasis should aim to elicit similarly balanced Th1/Th2 immune responses.

Unravelling the structural variation of lizard osteoderms

Vertebrate skin is a remarkable organ that supports and protects the body. It consists of two layers, the epidermis and the underlying dermis. In some tetrapods, the dermis includes mineralised organs known as osteoderms (OD). Lizards, with over 7,000 species, show the greatest diversity in OD morphology and distribution, yet we barely understand what drives this diversity. This multiscale analysis of five species of lizards, whose lineages diverged ∼100–150 million years ago, compared the micro- and macrostructure, material properties, and bending rigidity of their ODs, and examined the underlying bones of the skull roof and jaw (including teeth when possible). Unsurprisingly, OD shape, taken alone, impacts bending rigidity, with the ODs of Corucia zebrata being most flexible and those of Timon lepidus being most rigid. Macroscopic variation is also reflected in microstructural diversity, with differences in tissue composition and arrangement. However, the properties of the core bony tissues, in both ODs and cranial bones, were found to be similar across taxa, although the hard, capping tissue on the ODs of Heloderma and Pseudopus had material properties similar to those of tooth enamel. The results offer evidence on the functional adaptations of cranial ODs, but questions remain regarding the factors driving their diversity. Statement of SignificanceUnderstanding nature has always been a significant source of inspiration for various areas of the physical and biological sciences. Here we unravelled a novel biomineralization, i.e. calcified tissue, OD, forming within the skin of lizards which show significant diversity across the group. A range of techniques were used to provide an insight into these exceptionally diverse natural structures, in an integrated, whole system fashion. Our results offer some suggestions into the functional and biomechanical adaptations of OD and their hierarchical structure. This knowledge can provide a potential source of inspiration for biomimetic and bioinspired designs, applicable to the manufacturing of light-weight, damage-tolerant and multifunctional materials for areas such as tissue engineering.

Who to Believe? Consequences for Physicians and Nurses Who Spread Misinformation

Who to Believe? Consequences for Physicians and Nurses Who Spread Misinformation

How is the World Health Organization (WHO) tackling neglected tropical diseases affecting the eye? The case of trachoma and onchocerciasis

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are defined as diseases that mainly affect individuals living in the most deprived populations globally and continue to persist as a consequence of poverty. The World Health Organization (WHO) has estimated that greater than 1.7 billion individuals are affected by NTDs, largely in countries of lower to middle-income or low-income. Several factors influence the persistence of NTDs including inadequate data regarding the conditions, poor political support, ineffective ways to remove human waste safely, and limited availability of clean water. There are 20 currently listed NTDs. Several NTDs can impact eye health such as blinding trachoma and onchocerciasis (river blindness) which table 1 outlines. This article provides an overview of the WHO initiatives to manage trachoma and onchocerciasis, two NTDs that can affect the eyes.

Pharmacokinetics of oral moxidectin in individuals with Onchocerca volvulus infection.

Onchocerciasis ("river blindness"), is a neglected tropical disease caused by the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus and transmitted to humans through repeated bites by infective blackflies of the genus Simulium. Moxidectin was approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 2018 for the treatment of onchocerciasis in people at least 12 years of age. The pharmacokinetics of orally administered moxidectin in 18- to 60-year-old men and women infected with Onchocerca volvulus were investigated in a single-center, ivermectin-controlled, double-blind, randomized, single-ascending-dose, ascending severity of infection study in Ghana. Participants were randomized to either a single dose of 2, 4 or 8 mg moxidectin or ivermectin. Pharmacokinetic samples were collected prior to dosing and at intervals up to 12 months post-dose from 33 and 34 individuals treated with 2 and 4 mg moxidectin, respectively and up to 18 months post-dose from 31 individuals treated with 8 mg moxidectin. Moxidectin plasma concentrations were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Moxidectin plasma AUC0-∞ (2 mg: 26.7-31.7 days*ng/mL, 4 mg: 39.1-60.0 days*ng/mL, 8 mg: 99.5-129.0 days*ng/mL) and Cmax (2mg, 16.2 to17.3 ng/mL, 4 mg: 33.4 to 35.0 ng/mL, 8 mg: 55.7 to 74.4 ng/mL) were dose-proportional and independent of severity of infection. Maximum plasma concentrations were achieved 4 hours after drug administration. The mean terminal half-lives of moxidectin were 20.6, 17.7, and 23.3 days at the 2, 4 and 8 mg dose levels, respectively. We found no relationship between severity of infection (mild, moderate or severe) and exposure parameters (AUC0-∞ and Cmax), T1/2 and Tmax for moxidectin. Tmax, volume of distribution (V/F) and oral clearance (CL/F) are similar to those in healthy volunteers from Europe. From a pharmacokinetic perspective, moxidectin is an attractive long-acting therapeutic option for the treatment of human onchocerciasis.

Aton and the Sacred Bird

Aton and the Sacred Bird Kama Sywor Kamanda (bio) Translated by Nancy Naomi Carlson (bio) and Catherine Maigret Kellogg (bio) Under the early morning breeze, the palm trees were swaying in the azure. The green of the foliage blended with the colors of a sunken, strange, and silent sky. At daybreak, Aton, a young peddler, set forth, despite the impending storm. The wind was cold, and he shivered with each step. His parents were poor and beat him constantly because he wasn't bringing in any money. That's why, at a very young age, he'd started going door to door selling knickknacks in order to contribute in his own way to the meager family income. One day, he was startled by an odd character crossing his path: a wizard, clad in leopard skins, who danced, sang, and chanted mysterious incantations in the pouring rain. This man coveted the sacred bird—keeper of time and protector of day and night. Aton dreamed of possessing the same powers. By making the darkness more fearful, he thought, I would push back the boundaries of night. The strange fellow called out to the passerby and said, "Catch me the bird that swallows the moon at night and gives birth to the sun at dawn and in exchange I will give you gold." Surprised, young Aton collected his thoughts. He remained puzzled for a long while. After weighing the pros and cons of the offer, he asked, "Why don't you go search for it yourself?" "Gaining access to the great mysteries is only reserved for virgins. And this is no longer the case for me, my young friend! You, on the other hand, are honest, audacious, and still innocent." "I agree to helping you out." He was about to go when he turned around, and, after a long pause, asked, suddenly suspicious, "Are you sure there's no danger?" He then insisted, "What exactly will the bird bring you?" [End Page 25] The wizard didn't reply right away. He needed a clever trick to convince the impertinent young man. He had to come up with something to sweeten the pot. But he could think of nothing. Suddenly, he burst out, "Bring back what I want, and you will be rewarded. My only satisfaction will be to own such a unique possession." The young man was very persistent, astute, and strong. He thought it over. Nothing scared him. He was less naive than the wizard might have thought and replied with authority, "I don't believe in your good faith. No one would be so generous as to offer such riches for an animal that doesn't yield anything in return. He surely is worth more than that." Then Aton suspiciously eyed the wizard and understood he was deceitful and up to no good. The cunning old man turned around. He scrutinized the impudent youth, anger and hatred easily read in the wizard's eyes. Nobody had ever been able to stand up to him. Aton hesitated. He was worried but also tempted to take a chance. He suspected a ruse on the part of his interlocutor, a trap whose game plan he would have loved to understand. Nevertheless, he accepted. The sky was filling with dark clouds, and the young man, not confident in the outcome, wandered in search of the miraculous bird. His heart throbbed in cadence with frightening visions. Filled with doubt and uncertainty, he walked along, scaling mountain slopes and hills. He went down into valleys and chasms and crossed the wild grass. Henceforth, he no longer knew borders. He was there, from sunrise to sunset, as the seasons appeared and evaporated. After a few days, he saw an old man who was contemplating the stars while reading a papyrus. He came closer and questioned him. "Sir," he said, "I would like to know the exact place where I can find the bird that gives us the day and brings the night." The astronomer looked at him in astonishment. "It all depends on the stars, my child," he replied. "I would like to catch it," the young man said. The wise man looked at him with eyes wide...

Ilaiani in Sangam Literature

Did the term ilaiyani found in Sangam literature refer to the dimly lit Thali? Is the study. Sangam Literature Thali is a type of necklace worn by men, i.e. a necklace made of leopard skin. Sangam literature included singing and sum. The Sangam period was able to describe the living conditions of the people. They bear witness to the fact that the people of the Sangam period lived a pure civilized life. Most of the time, the leader has been living in the house with the consent of the leader. However, do they wear female thali during marriage? Have you studied their direct rhetoric? Is set to raise doubts about. Considering them, would the rhetoric of “fiber” be thali? Or was that impression imposed? This article is approached with consideration

Onchocercal Skin Disease Profiles Following Ivermectin Treatment in the Middle Imo River Baisn, Nigeria

In Nigeria infection with onchocerciasis has been under control with the introduction of ivermectin in most affected communities for a decade. To assist ‘stop mass drug administration (MDA)’ decision, a cross-sectional survey evaluated the impact of ivermectin on onchocercal Skin Diseases (manifestations) from 540 participants in 5 endemic communities. The rapid epidemiological assessment (REA) method with palpable nodules and skin depigmentation (leopard skin, LS) as diagnostic indices were used. The prevalence profiles of palpable nodules and leopard skin was 5.9% and 12.2% respectively. Prevalence of clinical features varied among the farming community (P<0.05). Similarly, age group 21-30 years had significant prevalence of clinical features than other age groups (P<0.05). Males had significantly higher prevalence of these indices (palpable nodules 6.8(%; LS 13.3%) than females (palpable nodules 4.6%; LS 11.1%). Although, Onchocercal Skin Diseases (clinical manifestations) were observed in all age groups, it occurred most in older groups. These groups with nodules could portend as reservoir for transmission. The implications of the results were discussed in the context of the on-going prediction of possible elimination of onchocerciasis in Africa and ‘stop MDA’ decision.

고려시기 사냥의 성행(盛行)과 대책

In Goryeo, hunting was not just military training or a hobby activity. It was a very important occupation. Livestock farming began early, but it had a difficult time spreading broadly due to its need for agricultural byproducts. Wildlife provided various resources that human beings needed along with livestock. People would hunt savage beasts such as the tiger, leopard, bear, and wolf. They would also hunt the roe deer, deer, hare, and boar. The hawk and the pheasant were the most important birds to hunt. It is estimated that the hare, pheasant, deer, roe deer, and fox were captured most. Once captured, wildlife served various uses. The tiger, leopard, bear, marten, otter, deer, and roe deer provided previous skins, and the marten and fox supplied clothes materials. The deer, hare, and wild goose were used as offerings at important sacrificial ceremonies at the national level. The most important use of wildlife was food. Good examples of wildlife that provided food materials include the deer, roe deer, hare, boar, and pheasant. Wildlife was traded in the market or used as a gift or bribe. Being recognized for their international value, the hawk, tiger, bear, leopard, marten, and otter skins served very important purposes in diplomatic relations. Almost all the social classes engaged in hunting. Local officials and military commanders would mobilize many people on their hunting trips. Yangsucheok and Hwacheok engaged in hunting as their full-time job. Hunting was very dangerous and hindered farming often, which made the government put restrictions on hunting. An emphasis on livestock farming was deeply related to hunting as the spread of livestock farming led to a lower need for hunting. It was very important how the government would deal with Yangsucheok that was fully devoted to hunting as a job while serving no compulsory labor. Between late Goryeo and early Joseon, there were active efforts to reduce discrimination against them including providing them with farming land, helping them settle down in an agricultural village, encouraging them to marry common people, and changing their title to Baekjeong. The strong martial nature of the Goryeo society is deeply connected to the prevalence of hunting as hunting required archery and horse riding skills along with bravery and agility.

Multimodal biomarker discovery for active Onchocerca volvulus infection

The neglected tropical disease onchocerciasis, or river blindness, is caused by infection with the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus. Current estimates indicate that 17 million people are infected worldwide, the majority of them living in Africa. Today there are no non-invasive tests available that can detect ongoing infection, and that can be used for effective monitoring of elimination programs. In addition, to enable pharmacodynamic studies with novel macrofilaricide drug candidates, surrogate endpoints and efficacy biomarkers are needed but are non-existent. We describe the use of a multimodal untargeted mass spectrometry-based approach (metabolomics and lipidomics) to identify onchocerciasis-associated metabolites in urine and plasma, and of specific lipid features in plasma of infected individuals (O. volvulus infected cases: 68 individuals with palpable nodules; lymphatic filariasis cases: 8 individuals; non-endemic controls: 20 individuals). This work resulted in the identification of elevated concentrations of the plasma metabolites inosine and hypoxanthine as biomarkers for filarial infection, and of the urine metabolite cis-cinnamoylglycine (CCG) as biomarker for O. volvulus. During the targeted validation study, metabolite-specific cutoffs were determined (inosine: 34.2 ng/ml; hypoxanthine: 1380 ng/ml; CCG: 29.7 ng/ml) and sensitivity and specificity profiles were established. Subsequent evaluation of these biomarkers in a non-endemic population from a different geographical region invalidated the urine metabolite CCG as biomarker for O. volvulus. The plasma metabolites inosine and hypoxanthine were confirmed as biomarkers for filarial infection. With the availability of targeted LC-MS procedures, the full potential of these 2 biomarkers in macrofilaricide clinical trials, MDA efficacy surveys, and epidemiological transmission studies can be investigated.

Neglected Tropical Diseases. The Place of Ivermectin in the Elimination Programs

The World Health Organization identifies as neglected nineteen tropical diseases with bacterial, viral and parasitic etiology, of which two are ophthalmological. These diseases affect over one billion people worldwide, especially communities in developing countries, with limited access to healthcare, clean water, and sewerage. These include: trachoma, onchocerciasis (river blindness), leprosy, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, foodborne trematode infections, dracunculiasis, Chagas disease, Human African trypanosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis (elephantiasis), cysticercosis, echinococcosis, soil-transmitted helminthiases, Dengue, rabies, yaws, scabies, Buruli ulcer, mycetoma, chromoblastomycosis and other deep mycoses. The global effort in fighting neglected tropical diseases is one of the biggest initiatives in the field of public health. On the 28th of January 2021 the World Health Organization initiated a new ten-year plan for the eradication of neglected tropical diseases. It aims to lower the mortality, new disability cases and suffering of more than one billion people.