Lemon Flavor Research Articles

Psychological confounds in medical research: the example of excessive cough in asthma

This experiment tested the hypothesis that the setting in which research is conducted may dominate symptom magnitude. Cough was induced with inhaled citric acid and its magnitude was influenced by changing the setting in 30 adolescents with asthma. Cough thresholds for citric acid were determined. The participants were assigned to a condition emphasising asthma, or a control condition, described as estimation of lemon flavors. All participants inhaled (in different order) thresholds for citric acid, 50% of these thresholds, or placebo. Results showed that both cough frequency and subjective ‘cough tendency’ were significantly higher in the asthma condition. State anxiety was higher in the asthma condition, but correlated only moderately with cough. Lung function, severity of asthma, trait anxiety, age or sex did not correlate with cough. It was concluded that patients with asthma cough more often in a situation which they have learned to associate with asthma.

Fat Content and Homogenization Effects on Flavour and Texture of Mayonnaise with Added Aroma

The influence of fat content (700 and 820 g/kg) and homogenization on the texture and flavour of mayonnaise with added citral (semi-polar) or pyroligneous acid (polar) was investigated. The quality of mayonnaise was described by sensory descriptive profiling. Mayonnaise containing 820 g fat/kg had the highest intensity of sour smell, sour taste, thickness and fattiness. Increased fat content, from 700 to 820 g/kg, did not significantly affect the perception of smoke flavour due to pyroligneous acid, or lemon flavour due to citral. Homogenization increased sweetness and whiteness, and depressed thickness and fattiness in mayonnaises with added pyroligneous acid.

EFFECTS OF GELLAN GUM, CITRIC ACID AND SWEETENER ON THE TEXTURE OF LEMON JELLY

ABSTRACTEffects of various ingredients on the texture of lemon jellies prepared from gellan gum, citric acid and sweetener were investigated by rheological measurement and sensory evaluation. The data were analyzed by use of the modification of Scheffé's mixture experiment method in converse triangle experiment area. The contours of the response surface were drawn using the best model whose terms were searched by AIC statistic, and the approximate model was calculated to consider the contours. “Hardness” estimated by both methods was large in jellies with high content of gellan gum and low content of citric acid. The content of citric acid significantly influenced “smoothness” estimated by a subjective method. The influence of citric acid varied with the content of gellan gum. The correlation coefficients of evaluation between “hardness” and “lemon flavor” or “sourness” were negative.

Marination Method and Honey Level Affect Physical and Sensory Characteristics of Roasted Chicken

ABSTRACTTo provide information concerning the functionality of honey as a marinade ingredient for roasted chicken, bone‐in breast quarters were marinated with lemon‐pepper marinade either by immersion or injection. Honey (10, 20, and 30%) was substituted for water in the marinades. Injected chicken retained more marinade, lost less juice during roasting, and required less force to shear than immersed chicken. Descriptive sensory panel evaluation showed that injected chicken had a more glossy and moist appearance, more intense lemon flavor, more intense sweet and salty taste, and more tender texture than immersed chicken. For injected chicken, addition of honey to the marinade increased honey flavor without notably affecting appearance, aroma, other flavor attributes, or texture.

Changes of Lemon Flavor Components in an Aqueous Solution during UV Irradiation

A lemon flavor composed of lemon oil, water (pH 6 phosphate buffer), and ethanol, and the lemon-flavored drink were irradiated with UV light. Citral (1 and 2), which is one of the most important components expressing the typical lemon-like odor, significantly decreased with Z−E isomerization and there appeared 2-(3-methyl-2-cyclopenten-1-yl)-2-methylpropionaldehyde (6), trans-1,3,3-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.0]hexane-1-carboxaldehyde (7), cis-1,3,3-trimethylbicyclo[3.1.0]hexane-1-carboxaldehyde (8), (1,2,2-trimethyl-3-cyclopenten-1-yl)acetaldehyde (9), α-campholenealdehyde (10), photocitral A (3), epiphotocitral A (4), and photocitral B (5). New compounds of aldehyde 9, 6 and 10, were newly identified as photoreaction products of citral. Limonene, terpinolene, and nonanal decreased, while p-cymene increased after UV irradiation. Other components, such as sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, citronellal, linalool, and terpineols, were only slightly changed. These results suggested that citral is a more UV-unstable compon...

Acceptability of Lactose-Reduced Baked Custard and Interest in Flavor Enhancement by Elderly and Young Adults

Abstract Lactose maldigestion and chemosensory losses can have negative effects on consumption of dairy foods by elderly adults. Possibilities were examined for development of a baked custard that would appeal to elderly and young adults. Fifty-seven elderly adults (59–90+ years of age) and 64 young adults (18–35 years of age) used nine-point hedonic scales (1 = dislike extremely; 9 = like extremely) to indicate how much they liked a vanilla-flavored baked custard made with non-fat, 70% lactose-reduced milk. Results indicated that elderly adults liked the custard more than young adults. Elderly and young adults were interested in a low-fat, low-cholesterol version of the product and in the addition of banana, lemon, chocolate, amaretto, creme caramel, and praline pecan flavors.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RHEOLOGICAL AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF A LEMON PIE FILLING

ABSTRACTA range of lemon pie fillings containing the ingredients corn starch, sugar, egg yolk, lemon juice and water were prepared using a constant weight mixture design. There were five ingredients in the system and four ratio variables were employed resulting in 25 formulations. Dynamic rheological and sensory measurements were performed. The latter used magnitude estimation to evaluate the characteristics of thickness, sweetness and lemon flavour. The relationship between the complex viscosity (η*) and perceived thickness was in good agreement with previous work on simpler model systems. Perceived sweetness showed a greater decrease than perceived lemon flavour with increased viscosity. The decrease in sweetness with increasing viscosity increased with increasing sucrose concentration, but was less than has been observed for systems thickened by random coil polysaccharides. An attempt has been made to explain this in terms of solution structure.

Reduced generalization following preexposure: latent inhibition of common elements or a difference in familiarity?

Rats injected with lithium chloride after drinking a saline-lemon solution also reduced their consumption of saline-lemon and sucrose-lemon, but a single prior exposure to sucrose-lemon decreased the generalized aversion. Experiment 1 showed that this decrease in the aversion to sucrose-lemon could not be explained by a decrease either in the aversion conditioned to saline-lemon or in neophobia to sucrose-lemon. Experiment 2 ruled out the possibility that generalization between saline-lemon and sucrose-lemon was based on shared novelty. Experiment 3 showed that generalization between the two solutions was related to the strength of the aversion to the lemon flavor they shared in common and that prior exposure to sucrose-lemon reduced generalization by causing latent inhibition of this common element.

The effects of calories and taste on habituation of the human salivary response.

The present study examined the effects of calories on salivary habituation. The rate of habituation to lemon taste was studied over 10 trials in 24 normal weight, nondieting, 18-35-year-old females. Between each of the trials, half the subjects ate low calorie, lemon gelatin, total Kcal = 32, and the others ate high calorie, lemon gelatin, total Kcal = 320. A dishabituating, novel chocolate taste was presented on trial 11 and recovery of salivation was assessed by presenting lemon flavor on trial 12. Subjective ratings were taken before and after salivary habituation for hunger levels and hedonics for lemon taste. Results show that high- and low-calorie groups both habituated to the repeated presentation of lemon taste, but with no significant differences as a function of calories in salivation volume, rate of habituation, hunger level decreases, and hedonic decreases. Subjects in both groups perceived equal caloric intake. These results suggest that salivary habituation may be affected more by the sensory characteristics of the food than by differences in caloric intake. The generalization of these data to the development of satiety are discussed.

Backward Second-Order Conditioning in Flavor Aversion Learning

Three experiments are reported which addressed the possibility that a neutral-flavor stimulus (CS2) can become aversive by pairing it with a previously established aversive-flavor stimulus (CS1). Unlike previous higher-order conditioning studies in which CSl followed CS2 (CS2-CS1 pairings), the present studies reversed this order (CS1-CS2 pairings) to determine the extent that backward second-order conditioning produces an aversion to CS2. In Experiment 1, rats received zero, one, or three pairings of a walnut-flavored solution (CS1) with LiCI. The walnut flavor was then presented just prior to forced consumption of a neutral lemon-flavored solution (CS2). A significant aversion developed to lemon only when three walnut-LiCI pairings were used. Experiment 2 manipulated the flavors used as CS1 and CS2 (lemon or walnut). Results indicated that regardless of the flavors used, a significant aversion developed to CS2 as a result of CS1-CS2 pairings. In Experiment 3, the level of aversion to CS2 with the backward higher-order conditioning paradigm was compared to forward higher-order conditioning. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) alone treatment and a handling control treatment were included to evaluate the level of neophobia to novel flavors. Results showed that the percentages of CS2 (lemon) flavor consumed relative to total consumption was significantly lower in the backward higher order conditioning group than in the UCS alone and handling control treatments. The forward higher-order conditioning group was quite variable and differed from the control groups at the.08 level. These findings are discussed in terms of higher-order conditioning and flavor aversion learning.

Habituation as a function of similarity and temporal location of target and distractor stimuli

Three experiments examined the habituation of rats’ neophobia to novel flavors, and the disruption of that habituation by presentation of a distractor flavor either immediately before or immediately after the target flavor. Habituation of neophobia to lemon solution was more seriously disrupted by presentation of saline as a distractor than by presentation of coffee as a distractor, and this was true whether the distractor was presented before or after the target on each habituation trial. Two further experiments established that the relative ineffectiveness of coffee as a distractor could not be attributed to its lack of salience, and was probably related to its greater similarity to the target lemon flavor. These results do not fully accord with those reported by Robertson and Garrud (1983), but are readily explained in terms of generalization of habituation between distractor and target flavors.

Pulmonary Reaction to an Aspirated Balanced Liquid Diet in a Cancer Patient

A 60-year-old man with pharyngeal carcinoma developed spontaneous pneumothorax. A biopsied lung tissue revealed an extensive granulomatous reaction to some yellow material. Because of the patient's frequent aspirations of the liquid diet which was mixed with an artificial lemon flavor, it is considered that the aspirated material provoked the pulmonary reaction and possibly the pneumothorax. An energy dispersive X-ray analysis of the biopsied lung tissue aided in excluding the possibility of the pulmonary reaction and the yellow material being of ubiquitous pneumoconiotic origin.

Phase equilibrium data for supercritical extraction of lemon flavors and palm oils with carbon dioxide

Carbon dioxide solubility data is reported for two lemon oil systems and a palm oil at 50°, 60° and 80°C and pressures in the range of 9 to 21 MPa. In addition, compositions of the oils in the vapor phase, saturated densities of the vapor and liquid phases along with viscosities of the carbon dioxide saturated palm oil liquids are given. The equipment and techniques used to obtain the data are discussed.

Phase equilibria for supercritical extraction of lemon flavors and palm oils with carbon dioxide

A correlation is presented for solubility data in high-pressure carbon dioxide of lemon oil and of a triglyceride mixture of palm oil. These data are compared with calculations based on the Peng-Robinson equation and on an equation of state containing a theoretically-realistic repulsive term. The correlated data are useful for design of processes to upgrade agricultural products.

The relative contributions of predictiveness and salience in flavor aversion learning

Two experiments investigated the relative influence of cue predictiveness and stimulus salience on flavor aversion learning. In the first study experimental subjects experienced a nonsalient strawberry flavor and a different, more salient flavor prior to illness on each of the first three conditioning trials; the nonsalient strawberry and salient lemon were paired with illness on the fourth trial. This treatment resulted in a strong aversion to the strawberry flavor and on aversion to the lemon flavor. In contrast, animals which had experienced only a single pairing of strawberry, lemon, and illness acquired a strong aversion to lemon and no aversion to strawberry, while animals which had experienced only the pairing of different flavors and illness on each of the first three trials developed a strong aversion to both strawberry and lemon. Experiment 2 replicated the results of the experimental condition of the first study but also included a “blocking” condition in which subjects received three strawberry and illness pairings prior to a strawberry-lemon-illness pairing. Subjects in the blocking condition developed only a weak aversion to strawberry, and this aversion did not block the development of a strong lemon aversion. Apparently, in order for a nonsalient flavor cue to block the acquisition of an aversion to a more salient cue, the nonsalient flavor must not only be paired with illness but also be more predictive of illness than the more salient flavors also paired with illness. The data were discussed in terms of the R. A. Rescorla and A. R. Wagner's associative model (1972, in Classical conditioning II: Current research and theory, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts), R. A. Rescorla's catalytic model (1982, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 8, 131–141), and N. J. Mackintosh's attentional model (1975, Psychological Review, 82, 276–298) of conditioning.

Studies on the deterioration mechanism of lemon flavor. Part IV. Identification and formation mechanism of components responsible for off-odor of deteriorated lemons.

Studies on the deterioration mechanism of lemon flavor. Part IV. Identification and formation mechanism of components responsible for off-odor of deteriorated lemons.

Deterioration mechanism of lemon flavor. 2. Formation mechanism of off-odor substances arising from citral

Deterioration mechanism of lemon flavor. 2. Formation mechanism of off-odor substances arising from citral

Studies on the deterioration mechanism of lemon flavor. Part III. Identification of acidic substances from deteriorated citral and effects of antioxidants on their formation.

(1983). Identification of Acidic Substances from Deteriorated Citral and Effects of Antioxidants on Their Formation. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry: Vol. 47, No. 7, pp. 1661-1663.

Relationship between Acid-catalyzed Cyclization of Citral and Deterioration of Lemon Flavor

(1982). Relationship between Acid-catalyzed Cyclization of Citral and Deterioration of Lemon Flavor. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry: Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 1387-1389.

Relationship between acidcatalyzed cyclization of citral and deterioration of lemon flavor.

(1982). Relationship between Acid-catalyzed Cyclization of Citral and Deterioration of Lemon Flavor. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry: Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 1387-1389.