Leguminous Tree Research Articles

Selectivity of Leguminous Trees by Water Buffaloes in Semi-intensive Systems.

Water buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) manifest different levels of selectivity for different pastures and forages. Knowledge of feed selectivity is important to facilitate the design of efficient production systems that take into account optimal animal welfare. In this study, the selectivity of nine 18-month old female water buffaloes for Leucaena leucocephala, Albizia lebbeck, Gliricidia sepium, and Moringa oleifera was evaluated. After 12 h of grazing Megathyrsus maximum, the animals were housed in individual shelters and 1.2 kg of leaves from each of the four tree species were offered to the animals simultaneously. The selectivity, measured as the intake of dry matter (DM), was highest for A. lebbeck (mean = 0.34 kgDM, SD = 0.05 kg), followed by L. leucocephala (mean = 0.30 kgDM, SD = 0.03 kg), M. oleifera (mean = 0.11 kgDM, SD = 0.05 kg), and G. sepium (mean = 0.10 kgDM, SD = 0.02 kg) (P < 0.01). The crude protein intake was highest for A. lebbeck and L. leucocephala. Notably, the less selected leaves were those of G. sepium and M. oleifera. This study suggests that the inclusion of A. lebbeck and L. leucocephala in silvopastoral systems may increase both the consumption and well-being of water buffaloes in the tropics.

Induced resistance to Fusarium oxysporum in mechanically stressed Acacia koa A. Gray seedlings

Acacia koa A. Gray (koa) is a leguminous timber wood tree endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Koa forests have been suffering from a devastating wilt disease caused by the fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. koae. To protect koa forestry from the disease, it is crucial to understand how disease resistance is conferred in koa. Here we show that non-wounding mechanical stress enhances resistance against F. oxysporum in koa as the survival rate of stressed seedlings doubled compared to that of unstressed seedlings (40.6% and 17.0%, respectively) following 3 weeks of mechanical treatment. The mechanical stress induces genes for antifungal activities, including those for pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis enzymes, within 6 h. Consistent with the gene expression, the extract from the stems of stressed plants had an increased total phenolic content as well as antifungal activity. Stressed plants also showed faster and enhanced expression of genes for the antifungal proteins upon inoculation by F. oxysporum f. sp. koae. These results indicate that a simple non-wounding mechanical stress can prime koa seedlings for the subsequent fungal infection to enhance disease resistance, and non-wounding mechanical stress may be a useful tool to study mechanisms underlying disease resistance in koa.

A Nod factor- and type III secretion system-dependent manner for Robinia pseudoacacia to establish symbiosis with Mesorhizobium amorphae CCNWGS0123.

Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, symbiotic nodulation promotes the growth of legume plants via the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia by rhizobia in root nodules. The rhizobial Nod factor (NF) and type III secretion system (T3SS) are two key signaling pathways for establishing the legume-rhizobium symbiosis. However, whether NF signaling is involved in the nodulation of Robinia pseudoacacia and Mesorhizobium amorphae CCNWGS0123, and its symbiotic differences compared with T3SS signaling remain unclear. Therefore, to elucidate the function of NF signaling in nodulation, we mutated nodC in M. amorphae CCNWGS0123, which aborted NF synthesis. Compared with the plants inoculated with the wild type strain, the plants inoculated with the NF-deficient strain exhibited shorter shoots with etiolated leaves. These phenotypic characteristics were similar to those of the plants inoculated with the T3SS-deficient strain, which served as a Nod- (non-effective nodulation) control. The plants inoculated with both the NF- and T3SS-deficient strains formed massive root hair swellings, but no normal infection threads were detected. Sections of the nodules showed that inoculation with the NF- and T3SS-deficient strains induced small, white bumps without any rhizobia inside. Analyzing the accumulation of 6 plant hormones and the expression of 10 plant genes indicated that the NF- and T3SS-deficient strains activated plant defense reactions while suppressing plant symbiotic signaling during the perception and nodulation processes. The requirement for NF signaling appeared to be conserved in two other leguminous trees that can establish symbiosis with M. amorphae CCNWGS0123. In contrast, the function of the T3SS might differ among species, even within the same subfamily (Faboideae). Overall, this work demonstrated that nodulation of R. pseudoacacia and M. amorphae CCNWGS0123 was both NF and T3SS dependent.

Morphometry and size distribution of aggregates from a Typic Hapludult soil under natural secondary forest, implanted leguminous trees and degraded pasture in the Atlantic coast of Brazil

Revegetation of degraded land can in long-term improve the soil attributes compared to the initial condition. This study aimed to evaluate the efficiency of revegetation with leguminous trees to recover the structural quality of a Typic Hapludult soil. For this purpose, morphometric and size-classes distribution analyzes of soil aggregates were performed on soil samples collected from layers 0–0.10 m and 0.10–0.20 m depth. Three areas revegetated with leguminous trees 17 years earlier (Acacia auriculiformis, Mimosa caesalpiniifolia and Inga ssp.) and two reference areas (forest and pasture) were studied. The soil under leguminous trees showed larger aggregates than the soil under forest and pasture, with overall averages by grouping the former higher than those by grouping the latter around 31.6% for the weighted mean diameter and 47.6% for the geometric mean diameter. Aggregate morphometric variables obtained from image analysis were correlated to each other (such as circularity versus roundness, in all five size classes, with values ranging from R = 0.25⁎ to R = 0.72⁎⁎), and also to other soil physical and chemical attributes. As a general rule for all five aggregate size classes studied, both roundness and circularity increased with the increase in the aggregates diameter, the soil densification status, the soil richness in organic matter, the exchangeable cations content and the particle surface electronegativity. The aggregate morphometric variables of the two studied soil layers, analyzed by multivariate statistical tools, led to a consistent distinction between sites, grouping forests and pastures apart from the leguminous tree covers. Thus, it could be concluded that after 17 years of revegetation these leguminous trees changed the soil initially under pasture but in a divergent way in relation to the soil under forest.

Morphological and Leaf Anatomical Characteristics of Different Variants of Narra (Pterocarpus indicus Willd.) Seedlings

Pterocarpus indicus, commonly known as narra, is one of the native leguminous trees in the Philippines that has occupied wide geographic distribution resulting in variability of its morphological and structural characteristics. In this study, the morphological and leaf anatomical features of four P. indicus variants (smooth narra – SN, short prickly narra – PNS, medium prickly narra – PNM, and long prickly narra – PNL) in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve (MMFR) were characterized. Based on seven morphological parameters, the mean root length, mean leaf number, and mean leaf area significantly separated the two major P. indicus forms. SN has a higher mean leaf number but shorter mean root length and smaller mean leaf area compared to the three variants of prickly narra (PNS, PNM, and PNL). Within the prickly narra (PN) variants, PNS and PNM showed distinct similarities based on six morphological parameters. At the same time, PNL seedlings have higher root-shoot ratio and mean biomass, indicating the greater capacity of this variant to store photosynthate material in its roots. The leaf anatomical parameters confirmed the similar features of two PN variants (PNS and PNM). Furthermore, the SN and PNL were significantly distinguished by the palisade and spongy mesophyll, xylem, and phloem area, where SN was considerably higher in all parameters except in the phloem area. This indicates that SN has a higher photosynthetic rate and has high storage capacity and ease of transport of water and organic matter. Thus, the morphological attributes and anatomical parameters contribute to further differentiating the two major forms of P. indicus.

Characterisation of Chamaecytisus tagasaste, Moringa oleifera and Vachellia karroo Vermicomposts and Their Potential to Improve Soil Fertility

Poor soil fertility and land degradation limit crop production among smallholder farmers. The practice of agroforestry with leguminous trees has proven to be sustainable as it bolsters nutrient supply through nitrogen fixation and nutrient cycling. The beneficiation of agroforestry species could add even more value by using tree based waste materials as mulch or vermicomposting. A study was conducted to investigate the impact of vermicomposting on chemical and biological characteristics of three agroforestry species; Chamaecytisus tagasaste, Vachellia karroo and Moringa oleifera. Eisenia fetida earthworms were added to the leaves and small twigs of the three trees in worm composting bins. The worms were allowed to feed on the feedstocks for six weeks under laboratory conditions. The results showed that vermicomposting significantly enhanced macronutrient nutrient content in all the three feedstocks. The findings also showed that the quality of the vermicompost depends on the feedstock type. M. oleifera had the best quality vermicomposts with a significantly higher composition of macronutrients which ranged between 50 and 170% higher for Ca, K, Mg and P. Vermicomposting increased Mo while other micronutrients such as Zn, Mn, Fe and B significantly decreased with vermicomposting time. In addition, vermicomposting increased E. fetida reproduction with more than a 450% increase in earthworm numbers in all three feedstocks. In conclusion, vermicompost have potential to be used to improve soil fertility and thus reduce the use of synthetic fertilisers in crop production.

Chemical composition and nutritional value of leaves and pods of Leucaena leucocephala, Prosopis laevigata and Acacia farnesiana in a xerophilous shrubland

The objective of this study was to determine the nutritional value of three leguminous trees heavily selected by goats in a xerophilous shrubland. Chemical composition and in vitro dry matter disappearance (IVDMD) of leaves and pods from leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), mesquite (Prosopis laevigata), and huisache (Acacia farnesiana) is presented. Crude protein (CP) ranged from 17.3% for leaves of huisache to 21.9% for leucaena. The neutral detergent fiber (NDF) content ranged from 39.0 to 40.3 with no difference among fodder threes. Across tree species, mean IVDMD was 61.6% for pods and 52.2% for leaves. IVDMD for leaves was highest (p &lt; 0.01) for leucaena (54.9%) and lowest for huisache (47.3%). Condensed tannins in an acetonic extract were highest for leaves of huisache (45.3 mg CE/g DM) and lowest for mesquite (25.9 mg CE/g DM). Pods and leaves of huisache presented the highest number of secondary metabolites, mainly related to hydroxybenzoic acid and flavonols; leucaena and mesquite presented mainly flavonols and anthocyanins. It was concluded that leaves and pods of leucaena, mesquite, and huisache constitute valuable forages for ruminant livestock due to their low fiber, high CP levels, moderate in vitro fermentation characteristics and high mineral content.

Influence of Two Important Leguminous Trees on Their Soil Microbiomes and Nitrogen Cycle Activities in a Primary and Recovering Secondary Forest in the Northern Zone of Costa Rica

Inga edulis and Pentaclethra macroloba are dominant N-fixing forest trees in Costa Rica, likely important for recovery of soil N and C after deforestation, yet little is known of their soil microbiomes nor how land use impacts them. Soils from both trees in a primary and secondary forest were assessed for N-cycle metrics and DNA sequence-based composition of total bacterial, potential N-fixing bacterial, and potential ammonium oxidizing bacterial genera. The compositions of the functional groups of bacteria, but not their total relative abundance of DNA, were different across the soils. The P. macroloba soils had greater NO3− levels and richness of both functional groups, while I. edulis soils had greater NH4+ levels, consistent with its NH4+ preference for root nodule development. The bacterial communities were different by habitat, as secondary forest I. edulis microbiomes were less rich, more dominant, possibly more affected by the disturbance, or reached equilibrium status quicker than the richer, less dominant P. macroloba microbiomes, which may be developing slower along with secondary forest succession, or were less affected by the disturbance. Functional redundancy and switching of 10 N-cycle bacterial genera was evident between the primary and secondary forest soils, likely to maintain stable levels of N-cycle activity following disturbance. In summary, the two tree soil microbiomes are different, land use differentially affects them, and, thus, both tree species should be used during forest regeneration strategies in this region.

Studies on Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr: An endemic &amp; economically important tree species of north east India

Parkia timoriana (DC.) Merr. is highly underutilized leguminous tree with multidimensional utility and benefits. It is found in northeastern Indian states having tremendous ethno-botanical and economic potential for ethnic people of the region. Right from flowers and tender pods to mature seeds every part of the plant are edible, provide a good source of nutrients and fetch high market price during growing seasons. Despite the fact that, it has high commercial importance, the research and knowledge on this wonder plant is scanty and its distribution and utilization for human consumption has not yet been fully exploited. Thus, present study examined the geographical distribution range of the P. timoriana (DC.) Merr. in North-east India and highlights its botany, reproductive biology, propagation through alternative means, physiochemical and ethno botanical utility & exploring its economical potential during Covid-19 pandemic period among the native tribes of northeast India.

Effects of conversion from leguminous acacia to non-leguminous eucalyptus on soil N2O emissions in tropical monoculture plantations

Tropical monoculture leguminous tree plantations are important nitrous oxide (N2O) sources, especially in the Asian tropics. We evaluated the effect of conversion from leguminous Acacia mangium to non-leguminous Eucalyptus pellita on N2O emissions. A 4-year monitoring experiment was conducted in three areas in South Sumatra, Indonesia. In each area, we established acacia and eucalyptus plantation sites adjacent to one another after the harvest of acacia trees. In contrast to our expectation, the averaged N2O flux at the eucalyptus stands (1.07 mg m−2 day−1 of N) was not significantly different from that at the acacia stands (0.96 mg m−2 day−1 of N). This result was attributable to the higher soil NO3 content in the eucalyptus stands than that in the acacia stands, which was due to the lower N requirement of eucalyptus than that of acacia. In conclusion, converting leguminous acacia to non-leguminous eucalyptus was not an effective option to mitigate N2O emissions in the short term.

Development of EST-SSR markers for Pongamia pinnata by transcriptome database mining: cross-species amplification and genetic diversity.

EST-SSR markers were developed from Pongamia pinnata transcriptome libraries. We have successfully utilised EST-SSRs to study the genetic diversity of Indian P. pinnata germplasms and transferability study on legume plants. P. pinnata is a non-edible oil, seed-bearing leguminous tree well known for its multipurpose benefits and acts as a potential source for medicine and biodiesel preparation. Moreover, the plant is not grazable by animal and wildly grown in different agro climatic condition of India. Recently, it is much used in reforestation and rehabilitation of marginal and coal mined land in different part of India. Due to increasing demand for cultivation, understanding of the genetic diversity is important parameter for further breeding and cultivation program. In this investigation, an attempt has been undertaken to develop novel EST-SSR markers by analyzing the assembled transcriptome from previously published Illumina libraries of P. pinnata, which is cross transferrable to legume plants. Twenty EST-SSR markers were developed from oil yielding and secondary metabolite biosynthesis genes. To our knowledge, this is the first EST-SSR marker based genetic diversity study on Indian P. pinnata germplasms. The genetic diversity parameter analysis of P. pinnata showed that the Gangetic plain and Eastern India are highly diverse compared to the Central Deccan and Western germplasms. The lowest genetic diversity in the Western region may be due to the pressure of lower precipitation, high-temperature stress and reduced groundwater availability. Nevertheless, the highest genetic diversity of Gangetic plain and Eastern India may be due to the higher groundwater availability, high precipitation, higher temperature fluctuations and growing by the side of glacier-fed river water. Thus, our study shows the evidence of natural selection on the genetic diversity of P. pinnata germplasms of the Indian subcontinent.

NMR-Based Metabolomic Analysis and Microbial Composition of Soil Supporting Burkea africana Growth.

Burkea africana is a leguminous tree used for medicinal purposes, growing in clusters, on soils impoverished from most nutrients. The study aimed to determine the factors responsible for successful reproduction and establishment of the B. africana trees in nature, as all efforts for commercial production has been proven unsuccessful. An investigation was carried out to determine the metabolomic profile, chemical composition, and microbial composition of the soils where B. africana grows (Burkea soil) versus the soil where it does not grow (non-Burkea soil). 1H-NMR metabolomic analysis showed different metabolites in the respective soils. Trehalose and betaine, as well as a choline-like and carnitine-like compound, were found to be in higher concentration in Burkea soils, whereas, acetate, lactate, and formate were concentrated in non-Burkea soils. Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis revealed the presence of numerous amino acids such as aspartic acid and glutamine to be higher in Burkea soils. Since it was previously suggested that the soil microbial diversity is the major driver for establishment and survival of seedlings in nature, Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted and a BLAST analysis conducted for species identification. Penicillium species was found to be highly prevalent and discriminant between the two soils, associated with the Burkea soils. No differences in the bacterial composition of Burkea and non-Burkea soils were observed. The variances in fungal composition suggests that species supremacy play a role in development of B. africana trees and is responsible for creating a supporting environment for natural establishment and survival of seedlings.

Short rotation coppice of leguminous tree Leucaena spp. improves soil fertility while producing high biomass yields in Mediterranean environment

The use of woody nitrogen-fixing plant species as multipurpose and energy crops aims to enhance biomass yield while improving soil properties. Yet, the effectiveness of this option is still under debate especially the use of short rotation cropping in water and nutrient limited environments. This study investigated whether short rotation coppicing of four taxa of multipurpose biomass woody legume Leucaena spp. can improve soil conditions when grown for biomass under a Mediterranean environment. Biomass yield, mineral composition and heat value of the biomass and the mineral and organic matter content of soil were evaluated. Under favorable growing conditions, woody dry biomass production was up to 29 Mg ha−1 year−1 with slight but significant differences between the four taxa that were tested. After 11 years of cropping, the soil showed higher fertility and microbial activity compared to the uncropped plot. Leucaena cultivation increased soil nitrogen by 35 %, dehydrogenase activity by 98 %, and organic matter and carbon content (by 41 %). Annual cuttings resulted in the highest biomass production, followed by two and three year cuttings. The mineral composition and the calorific capacity of woody biomass make it suitable for commercial use as an energy source (generating on average 151 MW h ha-1 year-1). In conclusion, short rotation coppicing of nitrogen-fixing woody species results in high biomass production rates with the restoration of degraded soils, constituting a sustainable agroforestry system for rural areas.

Pretreatment of tamarind pericarp to increase antioxidant availability and its application in a functional food

Diverse researchers have considered by-products of food and agricultural processing industries as a source of antioxidants. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) is a leguminous tree, native from tropical Africa bearing edible fruit. The fruit is composed of 30% pulp, 40% seed, and 30% pericarp. Currently, tamarind pericarp is a waste from tamarind processing (approximately 54,400 tons of pericarp in 2012 worldwide) and is contributing to environmental contamination. This research aimed to determine the effect of maceration, microwaves, and ultrasound on the increase in the antioxidant availability in tamarind pericarp and its incorporation as a functional ingredient in cookies (5 and 10% substitution). Antioxidant content, antioxidant activity, proximate, and sensorial analysis of the cookies were conducted. The microwave method was the best pretreatment compared with sonication and maceration since it showed 1.3-fold higher amounts of phenolic compounds and 1.2-fold higher antioxidant capacity. The 10% substitution of tamarind pericarp powder in cookies, significantly increased the fiber content (four-fold) and phenolic compounds content (2.6-fold) and the product presented good acceptance in a sensorial test. Thus, tamarind pericarp powder could be considered as an antioxidant and fiber source and could be used as a functional ingredient in food products.

Bradyrhizobium campsiandrae sp. nov., a nitrogen-fixing bacterial strain isolated from a native leguminous tree from the Amazon adapted to flooded conditions.

The nitrogen-fixing bacterial strain UFLA 01-1174T was isolated from nodules of Campsiandra laurilifolia Benth. originating from the Amazon region, Brazil. Its taxonomic position was defined using a polyphasic approach. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene placed the strain in the Bradyrhizobium genus, the closest species being B. guangdongense CCBAU 51649T and B. guangzhouense CCBAU 51670T, both with 99.8% similarity. Multilocus sequence analysis (MLSA) of recA, gyrB, glnII, rpoB, atpD, and dnaK indicated that UFLA 01-1174Tis a new species, most closely related to B. stylosanthis BR 446T (94.4%) and B. manausense BR 3351T (93.7%). Average nucleotide identity (ANI) differentiated UFLA 01-1174T from the closest species with values lower than 90%. The G + C content in the DNA of UFLA 01-1174Tis 63.6mol%. Based on this data, we conclude that the strain represents a new species. The name proposed is Bradyrhizobium campsiandrae, with UFLA 01-1174T (= INPA 394BT = LMG 10099T) as type strain.

Leguminous tree species create islands of fertility and influence the understory vegetation on nickel-mine tailings of different ages

Understanding the patterns of vegetation establishment on rehabilitated mine tailings is critical in evaluating the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs, but is still largely unknown. The concept of formation of fertility islands and their effect on vegetation establishment on two rehabilitated nickel mine tailings of different ages (20 and 40 years) since last depositions in tropical Zimbabwe was investigated to compare: (1) the tailings physicochemical properties: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), organic matter (OM), calcium (Ca), pH, salinity, texture and bulk density between perceived fertility islands (tree-canopy sites) and off- canopy sites, (2) vegetation structural and compositional attributes of canopy and the adjacent off-canopy sites, on the two tailings dumps, and, (3) to identify substrate correlates to observed vegetation attributes. We hypothesized that: (1) total N, Mineral N, OM and available P were significantly higher on canopy than adjacent off- canopy sites, (2) vegetation cover and species richness were higher on canopy than on off-canopy sites, and, (3) dump age and tree species had significant effect on substrate and vegetation attributes. We sampled substrate and vegetation in 1 m2 quadrats laid under planted tree canopies and the adjacent off-canopy sites on tailings dumps that were rehabilitated by planting leguminous trees. The Factorial ANOVA test showed that dump age and tree species had no significant effect on substrate properties and vegetation attributes. Mineral N, total N, available P, OM, and clay content were significantly higher on canopy than on the adjacent off-canopy sites while bulk density was significantly lower on canopy than on off-canopy sites. All vegetation structural attributes (overall plant aerial cover, grass cover, forb cover, woody seedlings cover and tuft density), species richness were significantly higher on canopy than on off-canopy sites. Plant communities on canopy sites were distinct from those on off-canoppy sites, regardless of dump age. Results demonstrate the ecological engineering potential of the leguminous trees through creating fertility islands that influence understory vegetation establishment on mine tailings.

Soil nitrogen concentration mediates the relationship between leguminous trees and neighbor diversity in tropical forests

Legumes provide an essential service to ecosystems by capturing nitrogen from the atmosphere and delivering it to the soil, where it may then be available to other plants. However, this facilitation by legumes has not been widely studied in global tropical forests. Demographic data from 11 large forest plots (16–60 ha) ranging from 5.25° S to 29.25° N latitude show that within forests, leguminous trees have a larger effect on neighbor diversity than non-legumes. Where soil nitrogen is high, most legume species have higher neighbor diversity than non-legumes. Where soil nitrogen is low, most legumes have lower neighbor diversity than non-legumes. No facilitation effect on neighbor basal area was observed in either high or low soil N conditions. The legume–soil nitrogen positive feedback that promotes tree diversity has both theoretical implications for understanding species coexistence in diverse forests, and practical implications for the utilization of legumes in forest restoration.

Stress tolerant rhizobia inhabiting the root nodules of Gliricidia sepium from selected locations of Anuradhapura district, Sri Lanka

The symbiotic association between Rhizobium and leguminous species plays a significant role in sustainable agricultural systems as it contributes higher amounts of fixed nitrogen to soil through biological nitrogen fixation. Gliricidia sepium is one of the most commonly cultivated agro forestry trees in the world. This leguminous tree is widely distributed throughout Sri Lanka. A very limited number of studies are available on G. sepium–Rhizobium symbiosis in Sri Lanka. The main objective of this study is to isolate and identify the stress tolerant Rhizobium sp. in G. sepium as a preliminary approach to use rhizobial strains for cross inoculation of crop legumes in order to minimize the heavy use of chemical nitrogen fertilizers. The root nodules of G. sepium were collected from seven sites in Anuradhapura district which is located in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. A total of 34 strains were tested for their tolerance to different physiological conditions namely pH, salinity, drought and temperature. Fifteen strains showed a higher tolerance among the isolated 34 strains when grown under a wide range of physiological conditions. When these 15 stress tolerant rhizobial strains were grown under extreme physiological conditions, 12 strains could survive well as they often experience adverse environmental conditions in their natural habitat. DNA fingerprinting analysis with ERIC 1R and ERIC 2R showed that the 15 strains are genetically diverse and they belong to 9 clusters at 71% similarity level

Unravelling the mystery of "Madagascar copal": Age, origin and preservation of a Recent resin.

The loss of biodiversity during the Anthropocene is a constant topic of discussion, especially in the top biodiversity hotspots, such as Madagascar. In this regard, the study of preserved organisms through time, like those included in "Madagascar copal", is of relevance. "Madagascar copal" originated from the leguminous tree Hymenaea verrucosa, which produced and produces resin abundantly. In the last 20 years, interest has focused on the scientific study of its biological inclusions, mainly arthropods, described in dozens of publications. The age and origin of the deposits of "Madagascar copal" have not yet been resolved. Our objectives are to determine its age and geographical origin, and thus increase its scientific value as a source of biological/palaeobiological information. Although Hymenaea was established in Madagascar during the Miocene, we did not find geological deposits of copal or amber in the island. It is plausible that the evolution of those deposits was negatively conditioned by the type of soil, by the climate, and by the development of soil/litter microorganisms, which inhibit preservation of the resin pieces in the litter and subsoil over 300 years. Our results indicate that "Madagascar copal" is a Recent resin, up to a few hundred years old, that originated from Hymenaea trees growing in the lowland coastal forests, one of the most endangered ecosystems in the world. The included and preserved biota is representative of that ecosystem today and during historical times. Inclusions in this Recent resin do not have the palaeontological significance that has been mistakenly attributed to them, but they do have relevant implications for studies regarding Anthropocene biodiversity loss in this hottest hotspot.

Antioxidant potential and free radical scavenging activity of Parkia roxburghii, G. Don, a lesser known leguminous tree from North East India

Total phenolics in extracts of different parts of Parkia roxburghii varied from 80.1 (flowers) to 311.6 mg/ g GAE (Pods) with moderate amounts of flavonoids and high antioxidant activity (50.1–92.4%). The pods of Parkia roxburghii were found to be potent DPPH radical scavengers followed by leaves, seeds and then flowers as evident by their low IC50, EC50 values and reasonably high ARP values (34.5–230.4). The pod and seed extracts exhibited good reducing power expressed as ascorbic acid equivalents (ASE/ ml) and significant protection against DNA damage caused by free radicals too. The extracts of Tree bean studied showed appreciable free radical scavenging activities through inhibition of lipid per oxidation (LPO) measured by ammonium thiocyanate assay, inhibition of hydroxyl radical observed in non-site specific and site specific assays, metal chelating capacity and superoxide radical scavenging activity. In most of the assays, the pod extracts showed higher potency in scavenging of free radicals than quercetin which was used as a standard. The specific phenolic composition of Parkia roxburghii extracts performed through HPLC and LC-MS/MS showed presence of gallic acid, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ellagic acid ferulic acid. Low amounts of flavonoids like kaempferol, quercetin, diadzein and genestein were also observed in some parts of the plant. Such scientific evidences in the present investigation on the functional attributes of Parkia roxburghii, a traditional food plant would hold significant importance in genetic diversity studies and also for disease prevention and management through diets.