Legal Standards Research Articles

Legal Challenges in Regulating Artificial Intelligence: A Comparative Study of Privacy and Data Protection Laws

This article explores the legal challenges in regulating artificial intelligence (AI) with a focus on privacy and data protection laws through a qualitative, comparative study. By employing a library research methodology, the study analyzes existing literature and legal frameworks across multiple jurisdictions to identify common trends, gaps, and inconsistencies in AI regulation. It investigates how various countries, including the European Union, the United States, and emerging economies, have developed or are developing legal instruments to address privacy concerns raised by AI technologies. The study highlights key issues such as the tension between technological innovation and regulatory constraints, the adequacy of current legal standards in addressing AI-specific risks, and the role of international cooperation in harmonizing data protection laws. The comparative analysis reveals significant divergences in how privacy is protected across different regions, particularly in the application of principles like consent, transparency, and accountability. Moreover, the article identifies critical gaps in existing frameworks, including the lack of clarity in AI accountability, data sovereignty, and enforcement mechanisms. The findings underscore the need for a more coherent and globally coordinated approach to regulating AI that balances privacy protection with technological advancement. Ultimately, the study calls for reforms that ensure robust privacy safeguards while fostering innovation in AI.

Termination of Prosecution Based on Restorative Justice in Indonesia it is Associated with the Renewal Criminal Law

Criminal acts arise from various aspects of human activity, including the political, social and economic spheres. The success of law enforcement is traditionally measured by the ability to bring criminals to justice and impose appropriate penalties. However, in certain minor cases, such as theft, embezzlement, and fraud with minimal losses, the public questions the need for prosecution, as they believe that prosecution does not match the seriousness of the offense. The purpose of this study is to analyze the implications and effectiveness of prosecution discontinuation based on restorative justice in the Indonesian legal framework. Using a qualitative research approach, this study examines the regulatory structure and practical application of restorative justice in Indonesia. Data was collected through document analysis and interviews with legal practitioners to explore alignment of regulations with legal principles and community expectations. The research findings show that, although restorative justice offers a viable avenue to achieve peace between offenders and victims, its implementation in Indonesia is still limited, as it is not yet embedded in the broader criminal law system. Currently, peace agreements between the parties are only considered as a mitigating factor in the sentencing process. This research suggests that stronger legal legitimacy for restorative justice, such as the inclusion of restorative justice into the Draft Criminal Procedure Code is essential to adapt to the evolving legal culture and public expectations. The implications of this research highlight the need for comprehensive criminal law reform to ensure justice that aligns with societal values and contemporary legal standards.

Assessing the Need for Additional Evacuation Measures in Deep Underground Stations

Underground railroad stations face evacuation challenges owing to the rapid spread of smoke and extended escape routes during fires. Evacuation in deeply underground domestic railroad stations relies solely on stairways, with no legal standards for additional evacuation methods. In contrast, international standards such as NFPA 130 and Japan’s Fire Protection Engineering Association (JAFPE) recommend using evacuation elevators as a supplementary means of evacuation. This study analyzed smoke behavior in deep underground railroad stations through fire simulations at the Soongsil University and Guryong station. It also examined additional evacuation measures to enhance evacuation safety through evacuation simulations. The results show that during a fire, smoke spread follows the same path as the passenger evacuation routes because of the chimney effect. Even with smoke control and ventilation systems in operation, smoke follows the same evacuation routes, such as stairways or escalators. Therefore, the study concluded that evacuation elevators should be installed as an additional means to improve evacuation efficiency, and placed in smoke-protected evacuation routes. The study also found that combining evacuation stairways and elevators significantly enhances the evacuation efficiency.

Methods of Extracting and Analyzing Metadata for Evidentiary Purposes

This paper examines methods for extracting and analyzing metadata for evidentiary purposes in civil proceedings. Through a comprehensive review of current literature, legal cases, and forensic techniques, it explores the diverse approaches to metadata analysis across various digital domains, including file systems, emails, documents, web browsers, mobile devices, cloud storage, social media, and emerging technologies. The study highlights the critical role of metadata in establishing the authenticity, reliability, and chronology of digital evidence. It also addresses the challenges posed by encrypted data, large-scale analysis, and the need for robust quality assurance processes. The findings underscore the importance of adapting forensic methodologies to evolving digital landscapes while maintaining legal and ethical standards. This research contributes to the ongoing development of best practices in digital forensics and their application in civil litigation.

Problems of Admissibility and Reliability of Metadata as Evidence

This paper examines the challenges surrounding the admissibility and reliability of metadata as evidence in civil proceedings. It explores the legal standards, authentication issues, and technical complexities involved in presenting metadata in court. The study analyzes key legal cases, technical methodologies, and emerging technologies that impact the use of metadata as evidence. It addresses concerns such as metadata alteration, spoliation, privacy issues, and cross-border challenges. The research highlights the importance of forensic soundness, expert testimony, and proper interpretation of metadata in legal contexts. Additionally, it discusses the application of traditional evidence rules to digital information and the evolving standards for burden of proof in electronic evidence. The paper concludes by considering future challenges posed by emerging technologies and the need for ongoing legal and technical education in this rapidly evolving field.

INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL LEGISLATION ON DOMESTIC VIOLENCE PREVENTION AND COMBATING

Domestic violence remains a critical issue that negatively affects the physical and mental health, economic status and social integration of victims. The purpose of the study is to summarise international and Ukrainian legal norms, standards and policies aimed at preventing and combating domestic violence. Research methods: comparative analysis and content analysis to study international conventions, national legislation and regulations. International and national legal acts are aimed at ensuring effective countermeasures against this phenomenon, protecting the rights of victims and creating conditions for the prevention of violence. In general, as of today, a sufficiently strong legal framework has been created to combat cases of domestic violence, and this also applies to Ukrainian legislation, which also tries to respond to existing challenges by adopting a number of laws and by-laws. The state has also introduced a number of mechanisms to support victims, including social and psychological assistance centers, shelters, and mobile teams. The results of the study showed that international documents such as the UN Charter, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Istanbul Convention play an important role in shaping the legal framework for combating domestic violence. In Ukraine, the legal framework also includes a number of legislative acts, such as the Law of Ukraine ‘On Preventing and Combating Domestic Violence’, which provides for comprehensive measures to protect victims. However, the problem of domestic violence remains relevant and requires further research and legal improvements to ensure effective implementation of international standards and improve the effectiveness of national measures.

Legal Standards for Selenium Enriched Foods and Agricultural Products: Domestic and International Perspectives

Background/Objectives: Selenium is indispensable for human health, yet vast regions worldwide grapple with selenium-deficient soils, rendering dietary intake a critical avenue for supplementation. This narrative review aims to systematically examine and compare domestic and international regulations and standards related to selenium enrichment, providing insights to enhance regulatory frameworks and standardization within the selenium-enrichment industry. Methods: From June to September 2024, we conducted a comprehensive search of official websites belonging to international organizations (e.g., Codex Alimentarius Commission, European Union) and governmental agencies of countries such as China and the United States. Keywords, like “selenium enrichment”, “selenium standards”, and “selenium detection methods”, were employed to identify pertinent regulations, standards, and guidelines encompassing intake benchmarks, detection methodologies, product specifications, technical guidelines for production, labeling requirements, and certification management norms. Results: Our analysis reveals several challenges within the current selenium-enriched regulatory and standardization systems, including inconsistent product determination criteria and limit settings, incomplete technical guidelines for selenium-enriched agricultural production, and a lack of unified regulations for labeling selenium-enriched agricultural products. Conclusions: These findings underscore the need for harmonization of standards and enhanced regulatory oversight. To address these issues, we recommend bolstering safety risk assessments for selenium-enriched agricultural products, establishing and refining a comprehensive standard system for selenium-enriched agriculture, and intensifying quality and safety supervision. This study offers a valuable reference for policymakers and stakeholders to promote the sustainable development of the selenium-enrichment industry.

ANÁLISE DA RESPONSABILIDADE CIVIL NO DIREITO AGROAMBIENTAL

The objective of this article is to analyze the application and evolution of civil liability in the context of agro-environmental law, highlighting the particularities and challenges associated with environmental protection in the agricultural sector. The study aims to understand how civil liability can be used as a tool to ensure sustainability and environmental compliance in agricultural activities. The research adopts a literature review methodology. The analysis is based on a detailed review of the existing literature, including books, academic articles, legislation and case law relevant to agro- environmental law and civil liability. The approach allows for an in-depth understanding of the concepts and practices related to civil liability, as well as its implications for the agro-environmental sector. The article is expected to provide a clear overview of how civil liability is applied in agro- environmental law, highlighting the effectiveness of current regulations and suggesting areas for improvement. The study should identify gaps in current legislation and propose recommendations to strengthen the civil liability regime, contributing to greater environmental protection in the agricultural sector. The conclusion of the article should highlight that civil liability plays a crucial role in promoting sustainability and preventing environmental damage caused by agriculture and livestock farming. Although there have been significant advances in legislation and case law, there are still challenges to be addressed to ensure effective and fair accountability. Implementing stricter policies and adapting legal standards are essential to balance agricultural production with environmental preservation, ensuring that the sector contributes to sustainable development.

Principles of socially responsible marketing

The concept of socially responsible marketing is considered in the context of modern trends in the economic policy of the Republic of Belarus and the state of business ecosystems. On the basis of complex analysis of scientific points of view and adaptation to modern conditions of management the author’s definition of socially responsible marketing is offered, its differentiation from the concepts of socially ethical marketing and relationship marketing is carried out. A system of principles of socially responsible marketing has been developed as the fundamental principles of strategic management of a Belarusian enterprise, which should be understood as internal social responsibility; external social responsibility; environmental responsibility; compliance with legal and ethical standards; receiving a profit.

Drill cuttings from oil exploration improve properties of substrate and growth of Ipê-branco ( Tabebuia roseoalba ) seedlings

ABSTRACT More information is needed on the potential of using drill cuttings (crushed rocks) from the oil industry in agriculture and forestry. An experiment in forest nursery was carried out to evaluate the influence of substrates formulated from onshore gravel on characteristics of Ipê-branco (Tabebuia roseoalba) seedlings (i.e., growth, quality, and nutrition). We used five gravimetric proportions of gravel from drill cuttings mixed with Pinus-bark - commercial substrate (Mecplant® Florestal 3): control with only commercial substrate and zero gravel (G0), 2.5 % gravel (G2.5), 5 % gravel (G5), 7.5 % gravel (G7.5), and 10 % gravel (G10). In general, high proportion of drill cuttings increases density and decrease current moisture and total porosity of the formulated substrates. The drill cuttings proportions G2.5, G5 and G7.5 significantly contributed to the available water and readily available water in these substrates, with percentage values ranging 23 – 30 % higher than the G10 substrate. Increasing the gravel proportion generally resulted in increased pH levels, P, Na, K and metals (Cu, Fe, Ni, Mn, Cd, Zn, Cr and Pb), except for Ca and Mg nutrients that decreased. Heavy metal contents in all substrates did not exceed the permissible values in legal standards. The G2.5 and G5 substrates increased by 20 % approximately the stem diameter and height of seedlings, and G2.5 proportion also affected the root dry mass and Dickson quality index, with values two times higher than G0 substrate. Multivariate analysis proved suitable as a complementary approach to evaluate the seedling quality. Drilling cuttings addition, in general, increased the accumulation of nutrients and heavy metals of the Ipê-branco seedlings, and G2.5 and G5 substrates provided the greatest accumulation of the nutrients P, Ca, Pb and Zn in the shoot, while G2.5 proportion contributed with higher accumulation of N, Ca, Fe, Cr, Mn and Pb in the root. Adding drill cuttings as a conditioning component of the substrate at 2.5 and 5 % proportions is a viable alternative for using this residue to produce high-quality Tabebuia roseoalba seedling.

The Role of Algerian Courts in Reducing Drug Crimes

Drug crimes are a major challenge facing many countries in the world, and Algeria is one of the countries that face this phenomenon with all challenge and seriousness. In this context, Algerian courts play a vital and crucial role in trying to reduce those crimes and provide justice for those involved. Courts are an essential component of the Algerian justice system, applying laws and legal standards to ensure justice and integrity in society. The analysis of the role of Algerian courts in combating drug crimes comes within a broad framework of challenges faced by the country in this area. Drug crimes are crimes that have a significant negative impact on public security and social stability, and require a firm and effective response. Therefore, understanding the role of Algerian courts in this context is vital to assess the effectiveness of the efforts made and to identify points that can be improved. This research is based on a careful analysis of the role of the Algerian courts in combating drug crimes, focusing on several important aspects, including: how to apply the relevant laws, ensure the rights of the accused and those affected, the effectiveness of the penalties imposed on those involved, in addition to international cooperation in this regard. Drawing on this analysis, we can understand more deeply how the Algerian courts' role in combating drug crimes has affected, what challenges they may face in achieving their goals, and how to improve efforts to promote justice and security in society. Therefore, we pose the following problem: How did the Algerian judiciary address the phenomenon of drugs and what mechanisms did it adopt to reduce this dangerous scourge?

Az anyanyelv használatának joga és annak érvényesülése a magyar büntetőeljárásokban

Aim: The goal of this study is to review Hungarian and international legal instruments in order to assess the relevant standards in this field. Enacting proper legal regulations, however, does not necessarily mean that the requirements of language assistance are also enforced in practice. Another goal, therefore, is the review of the relevant caselaw. Methodology: This study reviews the relevant standards through the review of the relevant Hungarian legal regulations, as well as of the applicable human rights and EU legal instruments. The practical enforcement of the right to language assistance is analysed through the caselaw of the Hungarian Constitutional Court and regular courts. Findings: The present Hungarian Criminal procedure code defines the right to language assistance and the use of translator and interpreter in details. The European Convention on Human Rights and the relevant Directive of the EU also regulate this right. After examining the relevant legal standards it becomes apparent that the present Hungarian legal regime provides more rights and offers a higher level of protection than what is required by the European standards. The consistent jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court considers the right to use mother tongue a crucial element of the equality of arms, an essential part of the right to fair trial. The caselaw of courts show that though there are some cases in which appeals also concern the use of mother tongue, the vast majority of these claims are not relevant for the merits of the case. Value: The right to translation and interpretation is one of the main principles of criminal procedure. The right to language assistance is crucial for ensuring fair trial. In summary, the enforcement of the right to use one’s mother tongue meets the standards provided for in legal regulations and the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court, but in this field continuous analysis is required in order to ensure compliance at all times.

The Development and Impact of AI-Generated Content in Contemporary Painting

The paper examines the evolution and impact of generative artificial intelligence (AI) technology in the field of painting, tracing its ascent from the early 21st century. It highlights pivotal developments in AI-generated content (AIGC), starting with Harold Cohen's "AARON" program in the early 1990s, progressing to Yang Zhiping's introduction of generative adversarial networks (GANs) in 2000, and culminating in Robbie Barrat's innovative applications in 2018. These milestones underscore the swift progression and vast potential of AIGC for both technical innovation and artistic expression. This analysis delves into the current landscape of AIGC in painting, identifying key technological advancements such as deep learning, GANs, style transfer, adaptive algorithms, and augmented reality. These technologies have elevated artistic creation to unprecedented levels. However, AIGC also confronts significant challenges, including issues related to copyright and intellectual property, artistic ethics and originality, technical constraints, market acceptance, and socio-ethical and legal concerns. To address these challenges, the paper proposes several solutions: clarifying legal standards, establishing authorization mechanisms, fostering hybrid creative models, enhancing the diversity of training data, promoting public education and outreach, and developing professional training and ethical guidelines.

Integrating Global Norms for Gender Equity in Kazakhstan: Aligning Workplace and Social Security Legislation with Sustainable Development Goals

Objective: This study investigates the impact of international standards on shaping national approaches to gender equality, focusing on Kazakhstan’s legal and social frameworks. Theoretical Framework: This research is based on theoretical perspectives regarding implementing international law, offering a foundation for understanding how global norms influence national policies. Method: A multidisciplinary methodology is applied, including comparative legal analysis, normative-legal methods, systems analysis, and legal modeling. Forecasting techniques are also used to anticipate future trends in the alignment of national policies with international gender equality standards. Results and Discussion: This study identifies several critical challenges that Kazakhstan faces in reforming its social and labor policies to align with international standards. Significant institutional and legal barriers hinder progress in promoting gender equality and eliminating discrimination. The discussion focuses on these obstacles and examines their implications for policy development and implementation. Research Implications: The findings of this study contribute to academic research and policy development by enriching the scientific discourse on gender equality and offering recommendations for integrating international standards into national legislation. This study not only provides a theoretical basis but also offers practical ideas for improving policies and legal frameworks. Originality/Value: This study sheds new light on the relationship between international legal standards and national legislation. It offers practical recommendations for advancing gender equality and supports the achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) by promoting the empowerment of women.

SNMMI Procedure Standard/EANM Practice Guideline for Brain [18F]FDG PET Imaging, Version 2.0.

PREAMBLEThe Society of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging (SNMMI) is an international scientific and professional organization founded in 1954 to promote the science, technology, and practical application of nuclear medicine. The European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM) is a professional nonprofit medical association that facilitates communication worldwide between individuals pursuing clinical and research excellence in nuclear medicine. The EANM was founded in 1985. The EANM was founded in 1985. SNMMI and EANM members are physicians, technologists, and scientists specializing in the research and practice of nuclear medicine.The SNMMI and EANM will periodically define new guidelines for nuclear medicine practice to help advance the science of nuclear medicine and to improve the quality of service to patients throughout the world. Existing practice guidelines will be reviewed for revision or renewal, as appropriate, on their fifth anniversary or sooner, if indicated.Each practice guideline, representing a policy statement by the SNMMI/EANM, has undergone a thorough consensus process in which it has been subjected to extensive review. The SNMMI and EANM recognize that the safe and effective use of diagnostic nuclear medicine imaging requires specific training, skills, and techniques, as described in each document. Reproduction or modification of the published practice guideline by those entities not providing these services is not authorized.These guidelines are an educational tool designed to assist practitioners in providing appropriate care for patients. They are not inflexible rules or requirements of practice and are not intended, nor should they be used, to establish a legal standard of care. For these reasons and those set forth below, both the SNMMI and the EANM caution against the use of these guidelines in litigation in which the clinical decisions of a practitioner are called into question.The ultimate judgment regarding the propriety of any specific procedure or course of action must be made by the physician or medical physicist in light of all the circumstances presented. Thus, there is no implication that an approach differing from the guidelines, standing alone, is below the standard of care. To the contrary, a conscientious practitioner may responsibly adopt a course of action different from that set forth in the guidelines when, in the reasonable judgment of the practitioner, such course of action is indicated by the condition of the patient, limitations of available resources, or advances in knowledge or technology subsequent to publication of the guidelines.The practice of medicine includes both the art and the science of the prevention, diagnosis, alleviation, and treatment of disease. The variety and complexity of human conditions make it impossible to always reach the most appropriate diagnosis or to predict with certainty a particular response to treatment.Therefore, it should be recognized that adherence to these guidelines will not ensure an accurate diagnosis or a successful outcome. All that should be expected is that the practitioner will follow a reasonable course of action based on current knowledge, available resources, and the needs of the patient to deliver effective and safe medical care. The sole purpose of these guidelines is to assist practitioners in achieving this objective.

PPDNN-CRP: privacy-preserving deep neural network processing for credit risk prediction in cloud: a homomorphic encryption-based approach

This study proposes a Privacy-Preserving Deep Neural Network for Credit Risk Prediction (PPDNN-CRP) framework that leverages homomorphic encryption (HE) to ensure data privacy throughout the credit risk prediction process. The PPDNN-CRP framework employs the Paillier homomorphic encryption scheme to secure sensitive loan application data during both the training and inference phases. Implemented using TensorFlow for deep neural network operations and TenSEAL for HE, the framework uses the Kaggle loan dataset to evaluate its performance. The results show that PPDNN-CRP achieved an accuracy of 80.48%, demonstrating competitive performance compared to Privacy-Preserving Logistic Regression (PPLR) at 77.23% and a slight decrease from the non-private DNN-CRP model at 86.18%. The model exhibited strong metrics with a precision of 0.84, recall of 0.91, F1-score of 0.87, and an AUC of 0.74. Security analysis confirms that PPDNN-CRP effectively defends against various privacy attacks, including poisoning, evasion, membership inference, model inversion, and model extraction, through robust encryption techniques and privacy measures. This framework offers a promising approach for achieving high-quality credit risk prediction while maintaining data privacy and complying with legal and ethical standards.

SOME LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN GREEN DEAL IN THE CONTEXT OF THE TRANSITION TO THE USE OF RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES IN UKRAINE

The article is devoted to the study of the legal aspects of the European Green Deal implementation in Ukraine, in particular in the context of the energy sector transformation the by increasing the share of renewable energy sources. There have been examined the key trends in the legal development of renewable energy and determines the environmental challenges caused by climate change and other negative factors affecting the environment, as well as analyzes the potential possibilities of adapting national environmental legislation to European legal standards in the field of renewable energy use. The author emphasizes the economic, social and environmental benefits of achieving the goals of the European Green Deal on the way to ensuring the sustainable development of Ukraine, calling for the creation of a clear and coherent system of legislation dedicated to the legal regulation of renewable energy in Ukraine. The results of the study points the urgency of creating an effective legal framework for the economy green transformation and the adaptation of energy and environmental policies to European requirements and standards. In the context of modern global environmental problems related to climate change, excessive pollution of atmospheric air, water and forest ecosystems, soil degradation as a result of both increasing anthropogenic load on natural resources and due to the development of objective laws of nature, one of the key priorities European environmental policy outlined the transition to the principles of sustainable development, which, in turn, generated the need to search for optimal mechanisms and concepts for ensuring such a transition. The European Green Course, adopted by the EU in 2019, is an ambitious and progressive strategy for the transformation of the European continent into a climate-neutral one by 2050. As a comprehensive conceptual package of legislative initiatives, to achieve this goal, the European Green Course includes not only the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions into the atmosphere, but also a significant increase in the share of renewable energy sources, an increase in the energy efficiency of European countries, and the integration of the energy markets of individual countries with the EU energy market. For Ukraine, the issue of implementing a policy of sustainable development by transitioning to the use of renewable energy sources is not only part of its European integration obligations, but also a time-tested necessity, taking into account the state of the country’s energy sector both during the war period and in the context of the post-war reconstruction of our country.

The system of international legal norms and principles – the basis of legal regulation of the activities of national law enforcement bodies

It is indicated that the introduction of advanced international and European norms regarding the functioning of law enforcement agencies into Ukrainian legislation is a key indicator that the country not only declares a sustainable course for the democratization of all aspects of public life, but also takes concrete measures for its implementation. Ukraine has made significant progress in this direction, but there are still a number of challenges, the legal analysis of which will contribute to the further approximation of the domestic system of law enforcement agencies to global and European standards. In this context, one of the priority areas of scientific research is the justification of the need to update and improve the ethical codes of conduct of law enforcement officers based on international standards. This task becomes particularly relevant in view of the need for constant improvement of professional ethics and standards of behavior in the law enforcement sphere. This approach will not only improve the efficiency of law enforcement agencies, but also strengthen public trust in them, which is crucial for building the rule of law and civil society. In addition, it will allow Ukraine to demonstrate its commitment to the principles of the rule of law and the protection of human rights in the international arena. The article examines the system of international legal norms and principles that form the basis of legal regulation of the activities of national law enforcement agencies. Two groups of international standards are distinguished. The first group includes international legal acts that declare human rights and freedoms, primarily those that may be violated by the unethical behavior of law enforcement officers as representatives of state bodies. The second group represents international legal standards of professional and ethical behavior of employees of a specific law enforcement agency, the norms of which directly indicate the proper behavior of law enforcement officers in a specific area of law enforcement activity (judicial, prosecutorial, police, investigative, etc.). The main emphasis is on the need to cover the rules of professional ethical behavior of employees of all law enforcement agencies without exception, including those legally endowed with special rights and competence.

Regulatory and legal component of administrative regulation of probation

The article examines the normative-legal component of the administrative regulation of probation.Itwasdeterminedthattheadministrative and legal regulation of probation is a set of legal norms and mechanisms that determine the order of organization and implementation of probation measures in the state, the competence of state bodies, their duties and rights regarding control over the implementation of probation measures and interaction in this area with the courts , law enforcement agencies and social services. It is noted that probation is a system of supervision, control and social-educational measures applied by court decision to offenders instead of imprisonment or as a substitute for punishment, includes individual supervision, assistance in resocialization and measures aimed at preventing repeated crimes and ensuring safety society, while integrating the offender into social life without isolation. It is emphasized that the NPA system of administrative and legal regulation of probation includes international legal standards, national NPAs, including Acts of central executive bodies, local normative acts, agreements, methodological recommendations, etc., the norms of which are aimed at the development of alternative punishments, provision of rehabilitation and social support of offenders, regulation of the organization and implementation of probation in Ukraine, determine the legal basis for the activity of probation authorities, and also establish the procedure for providing probation services for persons who have committed a criminal offense. It was determined that the shortcomings of the administrative and legal regulation of probation are: the imperfection of the legislative framework, violation of the probation procedure, clear criteria for assessing the convicted person and the system for assessing the risks of recidivism, the mismatch of resources and the burden on the system, the low level of coordination between subjects of probation, the prevalence of ineffective methods of psychological works; society is not aware of the purpose and mechanism of probation, etc. It has been stated that the prospects for improving the normative-legal basis of the administrative-legal regulation of probation in Ukraine are: harmonization of legislation with international standards, institutional strengthening of the probation system, expansion of various approaches to probation, improvement of mechanisms for rehabilitation and support of offenders, involvement of public organizations, development of electronic monitoring systems , expanding educational programs for probation officers, increasing funding, research and analysis of probation effectiveness, etc.

Historical and legal aspects of corporate governance in LLCs according to the legislation of Poland and Ukraine

The article provides a detailed examination of the evolution of corporate governance in Ukraine and Poland, focusing on the development of legislation in both countries. The author analyzes the historical development of corporate structures, tracing their evolution from antiquity and the Middle Ages to the present day, highlighting key stages and changes in legal norms regulating corporate governance in Poland and Ukraine. The article begins with a review of early forms of corporate structures in ancient civilizations and tracks their development through significant historical periods in Europe. The stages of corporate governance development in Poland and Ukraine during the 19th and 20th centuries are separately examined. In Ukraine, the formation of corporate governance was constrained by the legal norms of the Russian Empire, and only with the transition to a market economy in the 1990s a significant development of corporate forms was noticed, particularly it concerned limited liability companies (LLCs). In contrast, Poland’s development of corporate law was marked by intense changes, especially after the fall of the communist regime and accession to the European Union, which facilitated the eligibility of Polish corporate law according to European standards. The author provides a detailed analysis of the key stages of legal changes in both countries, including the codification of corporate law, adaptation to European norms, and the challenges encountered at each stage. The article also explores the impact of economic and political changes on the development of corporate governance in both countries, emphasizing that although the initial stages of corporate governance development in Ukraine and Poland were somehow similar due to geographical and historical closeness, their further development differed significantly. Poland went through stages of intensive reforming and EU integration, which substantially influenced the modernization of its corporate law. Meanwhile, significant changes in corporate governance in Ukraine began only in the 1990s and continue to modern days, facing certain challenges and obstacles on the way to full integration into European legal standards. The article reveals both common and different features of the evolution of corporate law in these countries. The findings provide a deeper understanding of the impact of historical and political factors on the formation of modern corporate practices and norms in both countries. The author concludes that despite the fact that both countries started moving into corporate governance from similar foundations, their subsequent development was significantly different because of the influence of both internal and external reasons. Poland has managed to successfully adapt its legislation according to European standards, while Ukraine is still in the process of transformation. This highlights the necessity for continued reforms in Ukraine, particularly for integration into the European legal space, which is critical for ensuring the stability and transparency of corporate governance in the country.