Slavery, along with other institutions and practices similar to slavery, has a long history of existence in Central Asia. These traditions were practiced during ancient times and the Middle Ages, and many of them continued to exist, albeit illegally, under the Soviet regime. In fact, the penal codes of the Soviet Socialist Republics of Central Asia included articles on the abduction of individuals, illegal detention, rape, forced marriage, marriage with more than one person, and sexual relations with a minor. Such acts were legally punishable in the Turkmen, Tajik, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek Soviet republics. However, the observance of some traditions similar to slavery persisted, and the majority of the population continued to participate in some of these traditions, even under the risk of criminal prosecution. These traditional practices included such rituals as payment of kalym for the bride and arranged marriages. Bride kidnapping rituals were also widespread. At the time, it was impossible to prosecute anyone on charges of human trafficking, because as a phenomenon or a legal concept it was generally unknown, and therefore was not addressed in the criminal legislation. In the early 1990s, the newly independent republics of the former Soviet Union tried to amend the legislation inherited from the Soviet era, adapting it to the new social and economic conditions of independence. However, amended Soviet laws were still inadequate in reflecting the emerging social realities in Central Asian countries and therefore, by the middle of the decade, the governments introduced a set of new legislation that included new penal codes, codes on criminal procedures (investigation and prosecution), codes on administrative misdemeanors, civil codes, codes of civil trial procedures, tax codes, and customs codes. These new and improved legal codes more or less corresponded to the new conditions of life in the independent Central Asian republics, but further development demonstrated that in some countries the new legislation reflected the economic and social realities and met the needs of society better than in others. In Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, for example, the new legal regime facilitated the development of a free-market economy, in spite of weak enforcement of some laws, high levels of bureaucratic procedure, and corruption, all of which hindered small and medium-sized businesses from developing rapidly. In Uzbekistan, agriculture and heavy industry continued to be controlled by the state, and the development of a small-business sector was curtailed by high taxes and strict government control. The government in Turkmenistan took control over all sectors of the economy. In Tajikistan, the nation’s economic development was