Legal Authority Research Articles

Criminal Liability for Artificial Intelligence and Autonomous Systems

The emergence of artificial intelligence and the increasing dependence of organisations on these modes of modern technology make this subject quite an intriguing area of research. The research has been conducted in Saudi Arabia, where the emphasis was laid on the criminal liability affiliated with the various firms operating through artificial intelligence and its modern use. How the different liabilities are held upon the organisations and what measures are taken in order to address these issues were all discussed. The role played by the legal authorities was discussed in terms of how these divide the accountabilities of the multiple parties involved.

In/Visible Line: The Physical and Symbolic Power of the US-Mexico Border

ABSTRACT What does the US-Mexico border mean to people whose marriages are defined by – and defy – this international boundary? Through an analysis of in-depth interviews with 42 mixed-citizenship US-Mexican couples, I demonstrate the imagery and symbolisms mixed-citizenship couples evoke to make meaning of the border in their lives. I find that an individual’s initial encounter with the border, each couple’s current proximity to the border, and the non-citizen spouse’s US immigration status all informed the meanings and descriptions of the border that couples shared. For couples living in the US-Mexico Borderlands, the border looms largest as a physical structure cutting into the landscape, literally separating space and people. For couples living away from the border but who can freely travel between countries, the border/lands are mostly invisible, but also a danger to be avoided. And for couples living away from the border with no legal authorization to travel across it, the border predominantly functions as a symbolic power, dividing individuals from families and communities, past from present, reality from possibility. These different understandings of the border show the physical and symbolic power of the border to divide, while simultaneously revealing how its divisiveness can be overpowered by relationships and community.

African Americans’ Willingness to Extend Legitimacy to the Police: Connections to Identities and Experiences in the Post-George Floyd Era

Abstract Numerous benefits materialize when people extend legitimacy to institutions; consequently, many investigations of the legitimacy of the police have been reported. However, several critical issues remain unanswered. My paper’s purpose is to revisit the question of willingness to grant police legitimacy, focusing on a nationally representative sample of African Americans. I test hypotheses connecting police legitimacy with experiences with unfair treatment by legal authorities, ingroup attachments, attitudes toward systemic racism, and engagement with Black Lives Matter. My findings reveal significant connections between experience with discrimination, ingroup attachments, and beliefs about systemic racism but little relationship between BLM attitudes and police legitimacy.

Effects of health educational and participatory consumer group interventions in improving food handling practices in regional director of health services area Kalutara, Sri Lanka: non-randomized controlled community trial

IntroductionSafe and nutritious food is the key to sustaining life and promoting good health. Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting infants, young children, the elderly, and the sick.MethodsThe study consisted of two phases, a descriptive cross-sectional study, and an intervention study. Both studies were conducted in the Regional Director of Health Services area, Kalutara, Sri Lanka. The descriptive cross-sectional study [food handlers (n = 904), food establishments (n = 421)] was conducted with the objective of determining factors associated with food handling practices among food handlers and in food establishments. The interventional study was a three-arm non-randomized controlled community trial (n = 50 per arm) with interventions of a participatory consumer group, educational package group, and control group.ResultsThe food establishments assessment tool (FEAT) contained 11 domains including 75 items with more than a hundred assessment points with a guide to conduct an assessment of food handling. The descriptive cross-sectional study found that food handlers’ knowledge of food handling practices of storing milk, fish, and meat and fast-food items containing fish and meat was very poor (96.6%). Visibility of the last place of processing inside the food establishments to consumers was inadequate (19.2%) and the absence of the above-mentioned factor was significantly associated with an unsatisfactory level of food handling score in food establishments (p = 0.03). The unsatisfactory level of food handling was significantly higher among food establishments with non-personal ownership (p = 0.005), a low number of notices issued by legal authorities (p = 0.02), dereliction of duty by owners/managers on supervising (p < 0.001) and lack of medical certification to food handlers (p < 0.0001). Participatory consumer group intervention and educational package interventions were effective in improving food handling practices in food establishments and among food handlers (p < 0.0001). Two independent sample analysis using the Mann–Whitney U test showed, the best improvement in food handling practices was by participatory consumer group intervention (p < 0.0001) and the second was educational package intervention (p < 0.0001).ConclusionsKnowledge and practices of food handling among participants were poor. A participatory consumer group is more effective than an educational package on improving food handling practices both among food handlers and in food establishments.

Reflections on the Historiography of Post-War Justice and the Holocaust in Lithuania

Abstract The article gives a brief overview of the historiography of post-war justice in Lithuania. It begins with an introduction to post-Holocaust justice, outlining the functioning of the post-war war crimes trials in Soviet Lithuania, including the institutional framework, the retribution law, the nature of legal proceedings, and the procedural changes that took place over time. The article then presents the historiographical approaches historians have used to investigate these trials and depicts the current developments in this field of study. It shows that following the fall of the Soviet Union, the first works on post-war justice lacked an in-depth analysis and instead concentrated on how the Soviet regime had utilized these legal proceedings for political purposes. The article presents not only the micro-historical studies that historians have conducted on selected court cases in recent years, but also explores the ways in which the relationship between the Holocaust and the Soviet war crimes trials, as well as the visual representation and mediation of these trials, have been investigated. It then briefly discusses the missing categories of analysis that need to be integrated into the study of post-war justice in the case of Lithuania. The article finishes by presenting the debates and controversies surrounding this historical topic. It shows that the Soviet campaign of post-war retribution is embedded in the “narratives of doubt.” The credibility and reliability of the legal records compiled by KGB officials are constantly questioned not only by the legal and political authorities, but also by historians.

Validity of the Electronic Record as Evidence in Accordance with the Decision of the Palestinian Electronic Transactions Law

The researcher addressed the topic of ‘Validity of the Electronic Record as Evidence in Accordance with the Decision of the Palestinian Electronic Transactions Law’. The researcher used a descriptive, analytical and deductive approach, aiming to explain the nature of the electronic record, the conditions that must be met in it, the procedures for documenting it, and its legal authority. The scholar concluded several results, the most important of which is that the Palestinian legislator approved the principle of equality in function and authenticity between the electronic record and the written record, but it did not specify the nature of the written record that is equivalent to the electronic record. Therefore, the latter may have the nature and validity of an official or customary record or unsigned papers such as commercial books. One of the most important recommendations of the researcher is the Palestinian legislator’s call for the necessity of establishing a special legal system for the electronic record, as it is one of the new means used to preserve electronic civil and commercial transactions and their documents.&#x0D; Originality/value: No researcher - to the researcher's knowledge - has ever addressed the validity of the electronic record in evidence in a specialized capacity in Palestinian law. Previous studies dealt with the topics of electronic records in comparative Arab legislation.

الحالة الأسرية ميزة شخصية وصلاحية قانونية

The research aims, through its paragraphs, to the following: 1. Providing practical evidence for issues related to the family that appear disparate to the observer, but are closely related to the family situation in its most precise issues, such as personal data, ending with the exercise of legal rights and actions. 2. The research seeks to explain the impact of unifying the legal system within the family in strengthening the personal advantage of its members and their legal authority to acquire rights and bear obligations, and to explain the result of this unification in preserving, caring for, and cohesive the family.

환경정책에 관한 법적·재정적 구조의 이해와 지방자치단체의 역할

To respond more efficiently to environmental issues of high policy importance recently, the current legal authority and financial structure between the central government and local governments in Korea are examined and institutional problems are derived. This study emphasizes the role of local governments and the need to secure their own financial resources by analyzing the legal and financial structure between the central and local governments, not just reviewing the regional nature of environmental issues dealt with by previous studies.

Honour Killings in Pakistan: Legal Perspectives and Reforms

This investigation delves into the pervasive issue of honour killings in Pakistan, examining its legal intricacies and proposing comprehensive reforms. Despite existing legal provisions within the Pakistan Penal Code, the implementation faces substantial challenges, including legal loopholes, societal pressures, and inadequate protection measures. Proposed reforms include enhancing legal clarity, fostering societal awareness through educational initiatives, implementing witness protection programs, expediting judicial processes, fostering collaboration with NGOs, and establishing counselling and support services. The proposed reforms collectively aim to create a nuanced and holistic strategy to combat honour-based violence. By addressing legal shortcomings, challenging ingrained cultural norms, ensuring protection, fostering collaboration, and providing compassionate support services, these measures strive to reshape Pakistan's societal landscape. The success of these reforms relies on the commitment of legal authorities, civil society, and the broader community to foster lasting change, ultimately creating a society where justice, equality, and human rights triumph over the tragic legacy of honour-based violence.

Identification of Child Abuse and Neglect Based on the Perception of Training Physicians in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Introduction Child abuse and neglect (CAN) affects many countries, including Saudi Arabia (SA). CAN in SA is more commonly detected in hospitals. Therefore, healthcare professionals must identify and report the cases. This study aims to assess knowledge and perceptions toward CAN among training physicians. Methodology A cross-sectional survey was conducted through a self-administrated structured questionnaire and involved 123 residents and fellows who deal with children in Jeddah, SA. The participants were recruited using convenient sampling methods. Descriptive statistics, t-test, and Chi-square test were used for statistical analysis. Results We found that approximately 78% would report their findings to the legal authority, document them, and assess their consistency with parents and the child's explanation. However, only 41.5% of the participants would report CAN to the proper authority. Most participants believed that CAN should be redefined according to Saudi culture and religious standards. In contrast, 68.9% of the participants believed that CAN cases are under-reported in SA. The main barrier to not reporting is the fear of consequences (63.4%). About 77% of the participants agreed to the need for further training. Identifying the CAN indicators was higher among those who handled a CAN case previously (median = 66.67, p = 0.023). Conclusions In conclusion, the study showed that appropriate undergraduate and postgraduatecurriculum training should be developed to strengthen future healthcare practitioners in dealing with CAN cases to protect children's welfare.

აფთიაქების საქმიანობის უფლებამოსილების მინიჭების მექანიზმები

Pharmacy is a crucial healthcare service that ensures access to safe and effective medicines for the population. As such, the regulation of pharmacy and the licensing of pharmacies and pharmacists is essential to ensure the quality and safety of pharmaceutical products and services. The regulatory body is responsible for issuing licenses and permits, conducting inspections, and enforcing laws and regulations related to pharmacy practice. A pharmacy license can have different meanings depending on the context, but generally speaking, a pharmacy license is a legal authorization granted by a government or regulatory agency that allows a pharmacy to operate within a particular jurisdiction. In some cases, the license may be tied to the physical location of the pharmacy, which means that if the pharmacy changes ownership, the license can be transferred automatically to the new owner, as long as the new owner meets all the other requirements for operating a pharmacy. In other cases, the license may be tied to the responsible pharmacist who manages the pharmacy, which means that if the responsible pharmacist changes, the license may need to be revoked and a new one issued to the new responsible pharmacist. To summarize, a pharmacy is a healthcare facility that provides services related to the distribution of medicines. Licensing requirements for pharmacies vary by country, but typically involve both a license for the physical location of the pharmacy and a license for the responsible pharmacist operating the pharmacy. These licenses may be subject to specific conditions and mechanisms for issuance and revocation, depending on the country's legal framework and other factors. Ultimately, the goal of pharmacy licensing is to ensure that patients have access to safe and effective medications, regardless of their geographic location or economic status.

The political ecologies of fire: Recasting fire geographies in British Columbia, Canada

How fires burn across British Columbia (BC), Canada is shaped by settler coloniality, timber capitalism, state forestry regimes, criminalization of burning, and Indigenous resistance. Despite the urgency of confronting the fire suppression paradox embedded in settler colonial fire management laws and practices, approaches to studying fire in Canada that foreground Indigenous law and de-center settler colonial governance is scarce. As political ecologists and geographers working and living in the context of unceded and ancestral lək̓ʷəŋən, W̱SÁNEĆ, xʷməθkʷəy̓əm, Sḵwx̱wú7mesh, səlilwətaɬ, and syilx territories, we engage with Indigenous feminist scholarship to expose how coloniality and gender intersect in attempts to erase Indigenous sovereignty to structure and naturalize provincial fire policy and its emplaced impacts on Indigenous legal orders. Our analysis contextualizes settler-colonial provincial fire management policy in the purview of Indigenous legal orders to foreground how racial-colonial and gendered politics are obscured when colonial fire and wildfire practices are naturalized. Revisiting key moments in the political development of fire suppression across so-called BC, we contend that the suppression paradox is embedded in and reproduces a colonial logic that widens existing social and economic gaps. These gaps are uniquely gendered, as settler coloniality operates upon patriarchal lines that have actively attempted to erase Indigenous women and Two-Spirit peoples, including the laws and legal authorities that they possess and practice. Considering the 1910 Fulton Commission, we highlight an example of how women and Indigenous people were excluded from the political decision-making structures that shaped colonial fire management practices in BC. These gendered and racialized exclusions bear directly on the exclusion of Indigenous women and gender-diverse folx, and Indigenous legal orders guided by matriarchal lines of fire knowledge.

By What Jurisdiction? Law, Settler Colonialism, and the Geographical Assumptions of IR Theory

Abstract In this article, I consider critical writings on territory in International Relations, focusing on recent work on U.S. practices of extraterritorial jurisdiction. I suggest that, while such work has importantly traced the multiple ways in which U.S. authority often exceeds the supposed territorial boundaries of the United States, it has nonetheless failed to reckon with the contested and uneven nature of U.S. authority within such supposed boundaries. In particular, IR scholarship has failed to engage with the ways in which U.S. authority has been, and continued to be, contested by Indigenous people and nations. This failure is the product of an assumption that lies at the heart of the discipline—the assumption that Indigenous people are internal to colonizing or settler states. I suggest that the internalization of Indigenous people and Indigenous political organization that is at play in much IR scholarship is not simply a product of a generalized “state-centrism” or a product of histories of settler colonialism, writ large. Rather, at the heart of the territorial assignations and allotments of IR scholarship are assumptions about legal authority or jurisdiction—about who has jurisdiction to define and assign land, about who does not, and what law means at all. Critiquing these assumptions and their political implications, I show the importance of asking: “by what jurisdiction”? That is, what is the legal authority that we implicitly accept and assert when we designate territory in particular ways? The question insists that there are multiple laws (including multiple international laws) at play in global politics and opens up space for critical and postcolonial IR scholars to better take responsibility for their (often implicit) choices between multiple laws.

Civil Law Analysis of the Category «Public Legal Entity»: A Case Study of such Legal Entities as Public Authorities

The paper analyzes the possibility of applying the categories «public legal entity» or «legal entity of public law» in civil law. The application of this category to legal entities — public authorities — can be explained by the problem of dualism of their legal status. This dualism is manifested in the fact that, participating in civil legal relations as independent entities, legal entities-public authorities do not cease to be part of the public authority mechanism, which affects the independence of their volition and expression of will, calls into question the existence of their independent interest, different from the interest of the entire public legal entity. Under certain circumstances, legal entities-public authorities may participate in civil law relations on behalf of and in the interests of the entire public legal entity. This complicates the differentiation of such forms in practice and requires its resolution in the science of civil law. As the type-forming features of public legal entities, the author highlights their inherent connection with the public legal entity that created them and the specifics of the legal regime of their property regulation. Applying an extensive set of methods, including comparative legal and formal legal methods and from the standpoint of a systematic scientific approach, the author comes to the conclusion that it is necessary to exclude the possibility of granting public authorities the legal status of legal entities and defining the public legal entities themselves — the Russian Federation, its constituent entities and municipalities — as public legal entities instead of the legal status sui generis. The paper provides a valuable description of the risks of such an innovation caused by an incorrect understanding of the essence of a public legal entity.

Dylematy w orzecznictwie sądów administracyjnych w zakresie wykorzystywania nadużywania prawa do informacji publicznej

Dilemmas within the case law of administrative courts on the abuse of the right to public information The right to public information is one of the systemic principles of the functioning of the state. However, restrictions in access to this particular right form exceptions to the constitutional principle. Recently, the case law of administrative courts and the views of legal authors and commentators have begun to invoke the framework of the abuse of the right to public information as a circumstance based on which an entity may deny the applicant access to information. In the absence of statutory regulation, the boundaries and guidelines for applying the framework of the abuse of the right to public information are set by the case law of administrative courts. When analysing the most recent rulings of the Supreme Administrative Court of Poland and the provincial administrative courts, one can see a certain dualism in the applicability of the framework in question. The lack of uniformity in this respect stems primarily from the need to balance the values between respecting the constitutional principle of the right to public information and the possibility of limiting it in events of abuse of an individual's right. As a result of the analysis of the recent case law of administrative courts, a position is outlined indicating that, according to the dominant line of case law, entities obliged to provide public information may invoke the framework mentioned above to protect themselves from actions that are contrary to the assumptions of the Polish Act on Access to Public Information.

Holding Foreign Insiders Accountable

Whereas corporate insiders at U.S.-listed, U.S.-domiciled companies must disclose their stock sales electronically within two business days on Form 4, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) exempts insiders at U.S.-listed, foreign-domiciled companies from this requirement. Instead, these “foreign insiders” report their sales on a paper form mail-filed with the SEC. Using a unique data set compiled from digitized versions of thousands of paper forms, we examine the stock sales of foreign insiders and compare their trading to that of their U.S. counterparts. Consistent with a lack of public scrutiny facilitating opportunism, we show that foreign insiders’ stock sales are highly opportunistic and opportunistic trading is concentrated in companies that are domiciled in nonextradition countries beyond the reach of U.S. legal authorities: specifically, Russia and China. The average stock sale by foreign insiders affiliated with companies domiciled in these countries is more than four times larger than that of U.S. insiders and occurs prior to stock price declines of at least −18%. In our sample, we estimate that insiders at these companies have traded to avoid losses of more than $9 billion. Collectively, our results suggest that corporate insiders associated with Chinese and Russian companies listed on U.S. exchanges trade in a highly opportunistic and abusive manner. The SEC’s decision to exempt these insiders from Form 4 reporting requirements prevents much needed public scrutiny of their trading and, in turn, prevents market forces from disciplining their trading. This paper was accepted by Suraj Srinivasan, accounting. Funding: We thank our schools and the Dean’s Research Fund at Wharton for financial support. Supplemental Material: The data files are available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2022.02131 .

State School Nurse Consultants Issue RN Action Agendas.

The National Association of State School Nurse Consultants (NASSNC) recently issued two action agendas for school nurses. The first action agenda promotes school nurses using their credentials in all communications, documenting their expertise and asserting their legal authority to practice professional nursing. The focus is on the baccalaureate-prepared registered nurse (RN) being the entry level preparation for school nursing. The second action agenda suggests school nurses can increase school administrator support by explaining their specialty practice and offers several marketing strategies. School nurses are invited to access the RN Action Agendas at the NASSNC website link provided.

Cosmetic Contact Lenses in the United Kingdom: Assessment of Online Regulation and Quality of Consumer Health Information.

To determine the compliance of online vendors to the UK Opticians Act 1989 Section 27 requirements and safety regulations for cosmetic contact lens (CCL) sales and the quality of online CCL health information. The top 50 websites selling CCLs on each three search engines, namely Google, Yahoo, and Bing, were selected. Duplicates were removed, and the remaining websites were systematically analyzed in February 2023. UK legal authorization for CCL sales was assessed using the Opticians Act Section 27 and safety regulations determined by the presence of Conformité Européene (CE) marking. The quality and reliability of online information was graded using the DISCERN (16-80) and JAMA (0-4) scores by two independent reviewers. Forty-seven eligible websites were analyzed. Only six (12.7%) met the UK legal authorization for CCL sales. Forty-nine different brands of CCLs were sold on these websites, of which 13 (26.5%) had no CE marking. The mean DISCERN and JAMA benchmark scores were 26 ± 12.2 and 1.3 ± 0.6, respectively (intraclass correlation scores: 0.99 for both). A significant number of websites provide consumers with easy, unsafe, and unregulated access to CCLs. Most online stores do not meet the requirements set out in the Opticians Act for CCL sales in the United Kingdom. A significant number of CCLs lack CE marking, while the average quality of information on websites selling CCLs is poor. Together, these pose a risk to consumers purchasing CCLs from unregulated websites, and therefore, further stringent regulations on the online sales of these products are needed.

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Competence or Experience

Obligation to Submit Tax Data and Information From Agencies, Institutions, Associations, and Other Parties To Maintain The Authority of Law and The State

Law Number 28 of 2007 concerning the Third Amendment to Law Number 6 of 1983 concerning General Provisions and Procedures for Taxation and Government Regulation Number 31 of 2012 concerning the Provision and Collection of Data and Information relating to Taxation have regulated that every government agency, institutions, associations and other parties (ILAP), are obliged to provide data and information relating to taxation to the Directorate General of Taxes (DJP), the provisions of which are regulated by Government Regulations. Even though Article 41C of Law No. 28 of 2007 regulates a maximum prison sentence of 1 year and a fine of 1 billion for people who deliberately do not carry out obligations as regulated in Article 35A, in practice the provision of submission of tax data and information from ILAP does not work. properly. To realize the implementation of these obligations, the DJP took another approach through the creation of a Memorandum of Understanding/ Agreement/MoU to a Cooperation Agreement in order to obtain tax data and information from the ILAP. The research study used in writing research methods focuses on and examines the application of rules and norms in positive law. Using Legal Certainty Theory by Gustav Radbruch. The results of the research, what was found was that the implementation of the obligation to submit tax data and information from ILAP did not run in accordance with positive law, namely Article 35A of Law Number 28 of 2007 concerning the Third Amendment to Law Number 6 of 1983 concerning General Provisions and Tax Procedures. . Researchers suggest changes to norms in Article 35A of Law Number 28 of 2007 concerning the Third Amendment to Law Number 6 of 1983 concerning General Provisions and Tax Procedures to include a mechanism for signing a Memorandum of Understanding/Memorandum of Understanding (MoU). /Cooperation Agreement (PKS) as an alternative solution for collecting tax data and information so that legal and state authority can be maintained.