Left-behind Adolescents Research Articles

“We must make sacrifices” - coping among left-behind adolescents in Georgia after parental migration

Abstract Background Adolescence is challenging, particularly for those left-behind in their countries of origin while parents out-migrate for work. The Eastern European country Georgia has one of the highest percentages of left-behind children and adolescents worldwide, yet how they cope with migratory separation remains unknown. This study is the first to explore strategies of Georgian left-behind adolescents to cope with parental absence. Methods From December 2021 to January 2022, we conducted 29 narrative interviews with left-behind adolescents aged 12-18 in Georgia. We purposively sampled participants from a relatively large public school in the Samegrelo region, the second-largest region of Georgia. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and coded using NVivo 12. Resilience theory underpins this study, and reflexive thematic analysis is applied to identify main themes and sub-themes. Results Under the overarching theme of coping and resilience, we identified the following four main themes: (1) the time dimension (2) family connectedness (3) positive attitudes and self-care (4) social interactions beyond the family. Our findings revealed that adolescents whose parent(s) migrated when they were toddlers coped well, while children aged 6-10 felt heavily affected and vulnerable. Closeness with the migrant parent, siblings, caregivers, and other family members was crucial for children’s coping. Self-care, self-encouragement, and positive attitudes helped them overcome negative emotions related to parental absence. Awareness of parents’ motivation to migrate and appreciation of material benefits positively contributed to adolescents’ coping and resilience. In addition, those with many friends coped better and were more resilient than socially less active peers. Conclusions Self-motivation, positive attitude, supportive family, and social interactions help left-behind adolescents to cope with negative emotions related to parental absence. Key messages • left-behind children especially at the age of 6-10 need support to cope with migratory separation. • Interventions are needed to strengthen family ties and support children in intensifying social interactions beyond family.

Positive character and psychological well-being: A nuanced examination among adolescents from diverse rural-urban and migration contexts.

Positive character is an integral component of positive youth development that relates to psychological well-being among adolescents, yet the literature has largely overlooked its within-group variation. This study examined the latent profiles of positive character and explored their variation in psychological well-being across four adolescent groups (i.e., migrant, left-behind, rural local, and urban local adolescents) within each profile. A diverse sample of 15,895 adolescents from 10 provinces of China (Meanage = 13.16, SD = 2.53; 47.5% girls) completed a cross-sectional survey on positive character and psychological well-being in 2017. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted based on four positive characters. We investigated the distribution of each positive character profile across subgroups, as well as if and how the psychological well-being varied across different adolescent groups within each profile. LPA revealed three subgroups, including "Thriving" (53.6%), "Moderate" (39.1%), and "Lagging" (7.4%) positive character profiles. The "Thriving" profile was more prevalent among the urban local (58.5%) and migrant (55.8%) adolescent groups, while the "Lagging" profile was most prevalent among the left-behind adolescent group (11.6%). Urban local and migrant adolescents tended to show better psychological well-being compared to rural local and left-behind adolescents, and the disparities were generally more pronounced under the "Thriving" profile as compared to the "Moderate" and "Lagging" profiles. Three positive character profiles were captured among four groups of Chinese adolescents varied in parental migration status and rural-urban residency. Tailored youth development programs are needed for different groups of adolescents varying in positive character profiles.

Suicide Risk among Chinese Left-Behind Adolescents: Developmental Trajectories and Multi-Contextual Predictors.

Suicide is prevalent among left-behind youth, a group that has yet to be thoroughly explored in terms of the developmental dynamics of their suicide risk and associated factors. This study adopted a person-centered approach to investigate the developmental trajectories of suicide risk among Chinese left-behind adolescents, along with multi-dimensional predictors. A total of 774 left-behind adolescents (Mage = 13.60, 50.1% female) completed three surveys over a year, with six-month intervals. Result of Latent Class Growth Modeling identified three subgroups with distinct developmental trajectories: High Risk-Escalating (7.6% of participants started at the highest levels with a worsening trend), Risk-Holding (21.6% maintained a stable but risk level starting above the critical threshold), and Low Risk-Diminishing (70.8% started low and continued to decrease). Gender (being a female), increased levels of childhood maltreatment, psychological pain, and depression were risk factors for High Risk-Escalating and/or Risk-Holding trajectories, while increased sense of control and regulatory emotional self-efficacy played protective roles. The findings underscore the malignant developmental patterns of suicide risk among left-behind adolescents. The predictive factors play a crucial role in distinguishing and improving these developmental trajectories.

A cross-sectional study of the association between physical activity and depressive symptoms among adolescents in southwest China stratified by parental absence: the mediating role of insomnia and the moderating role of resilience

ObjectivesThis study explored the mechanisms by which physical activity was associated with depressive symptoms in multi-ethnic (Han, Yi and Tibetan) adolescents in southwest China. The mediating role of insomnia in...

Gaming disorder and depression among chinese left-behind adolescents: Interactions of family, school, and personality factors

Gaming disorder and depression of Chinese adolescents have aroused widespread concern. Although there is a close relationship between gaming disorder and depression among ordinary adolescents, few studies have examined this relationship among Chinese left-behind adolescents (adolescents left in rural areas while parents work in urban areas for at least six months annually) from the perspective of environment-individual interactions. This study aimed to analyze whether family, school, and personality factors could interact in predicting left-behind adolescents’ gaming disorder and depression. A cross-sectional questionnaire study was conducted between June and December 2020 in four high schools in Central China. A total of 618 left-behind adolescents between 11 and 15 years of age completed the anonymous survey. The results found that gaming disorder acted as a mediator linking parental neglect to depression. Teacher-student relationships and trait self-control uniquely weakened the predictive effect of parental neglect on gaming disorder and the mediating effect of gaming disorder between parental neglect and depression. The three-way interaction of parental neglect, teacher-student relationships, and trait self-control also showed a significant effect on left-behind adolescents’ depression through gaming disorder. The protective role of teacher-student relationships on the mediation of gaming disorder was stronger for left-behind adolescents with lower trait self-control, and the protective role of trait self-control on the mediation of gaming disorder was stronger for left-behind adolescents with lower teacher-student relationships. The results promote a better understanding of how family, school, and personality interact to predict left-behind adolescents’ gaming disorder and depression. The findings can inform specific practical suggestions for preventing and intervening in gaming disorder and depression.

Effects of stressful life events on suicide risk among orphaned and left-behind adolescents in China: The mediating roles of loneliness and subjective well-being

BackgroundResearch has established a link between stressful life events and suicide risk among adolescents, but limited attention has been directed towards vulnerable groups regarding the impact of such events on suicide risk. ObjectivesThis study aimed to examine the influence of stressful life events on suicide risk among orphaned and left-behind adolescents in China and to explore potential variations in this effect across different types of adolescents. MethodsParticipants were from four schools located in four counties with high HIV/AIDS infection rates in the Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture, Sichuan Province, China. A sample of 1912 students were recruited, and 1524 responses were retained for analysis. Participants completed questionnaires assessing stressful life events, suicide risk, loneliness, and subjective well-being. Orphaned and left-behind adolescents were identified through demographic questions. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to assess the mediating effects of loneliness and subjective well-being on the relationship between stressful life events and suicide risk, as well as to examine the moderating effect of adolescent type. ResultsStressful life events showed a significant positive association with suicide risk. Loneliness and subjective well-being played mediating roles in the relationship between stressful life events and suicide risk. Double and single orphans exhibited higher levels of loneliness and lower levels of subjective well-being. Moreover, stressful life events had a more pronounced effect on suicide risk among left-behind adolescents. ConclusionsStressful life events exerted a direct positive impact on suicide risk among adolescents, while also indirectly affecting suicide risk by elevating loneliness and diminishing subjective well-being. Adolescents who experienced parental bereavement were more susceptible to feelings of loneliness and unhappiness. However, left-behind adolescents demonstrated elevated suicide risk even when facing similar levels of stressful life events. The stress sensitization theory and the distinct effects of chronic and acute stressors may offer explanatory insights. Implications for practice were discussed.

Positive Development Patterns in Left-Behind Adolescents: Do Resilience and Making Sense of Adversity Have Beneficial Effects?

Despite increased attention to the positive development of left-behind adolescents, research findings remain inconclusive. Utilizing latent profile analysis, we identified various positive development profiles among the left-behind adolescents and explored the association between resilience and positive development profiles, alongside the mediating role of making sense of adversity. A multi-stage cluster sampling procedure was employed, randomly selecting four provinces-Zhejiang, Guangdong, Henan, and Jiangxi-from the central and coastal regions. The sample comprised 718 left-behind adolescents recruited from primary and junior high schools across grades 4, 5, 7, and 8. Three scales were utilized, and analyses included latent profile analysis and mediation analysis. Three latent subgroups of positive development among left-behind adolescents were identified: low, moderate, and high. Those with higher resilience and positive perceptions of adversity tended to belong to the high group rather than the low (β = -0.45, p < 0.001; β = -0.09, p < 0.001) or moderate group (β = -0.23, p < 0.001; β = -0.04, p < 0.05). Left-behind adolescents with higher negative perceptions of adversity tended to belong to the high group rather than the moderate group (β = -0.07, p < 0.01). Mediation analysis revealed that resilience facilitated the development of positive appraisals of adversity, subsequently increasing the likelihood of being categorized into the high (95% CI of -0.09 to -0.03) or moderate group (95% CI of -0.05 to -0.01) rather than the low group. These findings hold significant implications for intervention formulation. Educators should focus on strengthening resilience and fostering positive perceptions of adversity among the low group. For the moderate group, maintaining moderate negative perceptions of adversity may stimulate the intrinsic potential for positive development more effectively.

Developmental trajectory of depressive symptoms among left-behind adolescents: The effects of parent-adolescent separation and parent-adolescent cohesion.

Left-behind adolescents are vulnerable to depressive symptoms under the context of parent-adolescent separation. However, limited knowledge is available regarding left-behind adolescents' depression trajectory and the protective resources against it. The aim of this longitudinal study was to investigate the depression trajectory and its association with parent-adolescent separation (left-behind status, age of separation and duration of separation) and parent-adolescent cohesion (father-adolescent cohesion, mother-adolescent cohesion) among left-behind adolescents. The participants were 1,107 left-behind adolescents (Mage = 13.23 ± 0.86 years at T1; 45.17% girls; 38.48% both-parent migrant adolescents, 61.52% father-only migrant adolescents) from two rural areas of Shandong Province in China, who were participated in assessment at three time points with 6 months apart from November 2014 to November 2015. The results indicated that the trajectory of left-behind adolescents' depression symptoms showed a decreasing trend. Both-parent migrant adolescents reported a higher initial level of depressive symptoms than father-only migrant adolescents. Duration of separation positively predicted the initial level of left-behind adolescents' depressive symptoms. Mother-adolescent cohesion negatively predicted the initial level and positively predicted the change rate of left-behind adolescents' depressive symptoms. Moreover, mother-adolescent and father-adolescent cohesion buffered the negative effect of parent-adolescent separation on the initial level of left-behind adolescents' depressive symptoms. These findings highlight the protective role of parent-adolescent cohesion for left-behind adolescents, having important implications for interventions targeted toward mitigating the detrimental influence of parent-adolescent separation on left-behind adolescents' depression trajectory.

Daily social support and school belonging among rural Chinese adolescents: Variations by parental migration.

"Left-behind" children refer to those who live in rural areas but have parents migrating to urban areas for work. They are at increased risk for developmental problems and family dysfunction. However, we currently know little regarding their support systems at school. Using daily data over five school days from 90 adolescents (Mage = 13.70) in rural China, this study investigated daily associations linking teacher and peer support to school belonging, and how these associations varied by parental migration. Teacher but not peer support was positively associated with same-day school belonging. However, this association was attenuated for adolescents with longer duration and history of parental migration. The findings highlighted the importance of considering school settings and within-group variations for left-behind adolescents.

The Online Help-Seeking Behaviors of Middle Adolescent Students with Migrant Mothers

The relevance of accessing care and support has been found to be valuable in sustaining well-being among adolescents. However, only a few studies have been conducted to understand the online help-seeking behaviors of middle adolescent students whose mothers work abroad. Thus, the study aimed to uncover the nature of online help-seeking behaviors and explore the facilitators and barriers to these behaviors. Ten (10) middle adolescent students were interviewed, and their experiences revealed several key themes using the phenomenological method. The findings revealed that the online help-seeking behaviors of left-behind adolescents include the availability of a helper, reaching out, self-reliance, and coping strategies. Additionally, facilitating factors include convenience and safe space, and hindering factors consist of the unavailability of helpers and negative perceptions toward help sources. The results highlighted the importance of leveraging informal support networks, seeking professional help, and maintaining communication with migrant mothers among middle adolescents.

The relationship between adverse childhood experiences and depressive symptoms in rural left-behind adolescents: A cross-sectional survey

ObjectiveWe assessed the current status of depressive symptoms and the associated factors in rural left-behind adolescents. Moreover, we investigated the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and depressive symptoms. MethodsStudents from two rural junior high schools in Huaihua City were enrolled from July to September 2022. Before distributing the questionnaires, guardians of the students were contacted, and consent was obtained from the students themselves. The questionnaires were filled out anonymously and collected on-site. ResultsThe prevalence of depressive symptoms among the 325 left-behind teenagers was 23.40%; the rate of emotional abuse in adverse childhood experiences was 17.50%, physical abuse was 15.70%, sexual abuse was 9.50%, emotional neglect was 24.60%, while physical neglect was 27.70%. The five dimensions of adverse childhood experiences were associated with depressive symptoms (r = 0.597, 0.395, 0.410, 0.498, 0.741, p < 0.01). ConclusionsDepressive symptoms were common among rural left-behind adolescents. Adverse childhood experiences were associated with depressive symptoms in rural left-behind adolescents. Occurrence of adverse childhood experiences should be reduced to improve on depressive symptoms.

Parental migration and peer victimization: implications for school and psychological adjustment of left-behind adolescents in rural China

This one-year longitudinal study examined the relations of parental migration and peer victimization and their interactions with later academic and psychological functioning in Chinese adolescents. Participants included 1234 students in seventh grade (633 boys, mean age = 13.25 years) in a rural region of Anhui, China. Data on peer victimization, academic functioning, and psychological problems were obtained from peer nominations, teacher ratings, school records, and self-reports. Results showed that parental migration had significant and negative effects on later academic performance for adolescents who experienced high peer victimization. For adolescents who had not experienced peer victimization, whereas mother migration was not significantly associated with later academic performance, father migration positively contributed to increased academic achievement. In addition, adolescents with one parent who had migrated displayed more psychological problems than adolescents whose parents both migrated or did not migrate. The results suggest that parental migration may contribute differently to adolescent adjustment across domains and that the contributions may be moderated by individual social experiences with others and parental migration status. The results are discussed in the Chinese rural context.

感恩对留守青少年抑郁的影响——学校归属感的中介作用

感恩对留守青少年抑郁的影响——学校归属感的中介作用

A Study on the Status Quo and Causes of Interpersonal Relationship Disturbance of Left-behind Adolescents in Southwest Ethnic Areas

A Study on the Status Quo and Causes of Interpersonal Relationship Disturbance of Left-behind Adolescents in Southwest Ethnic Areas

Migrant fathers and mental health concern: perceived paternal attachment, self-esteem, maternal nurturance, and mental health problems among left-behind adolescents

ABSTRACT The current study aims to investigate the factors associated with mental health problems to draw the attention of the health experts to design interventions to improve the migrant father–adolescent relationship and their mental health. A quantitative design was utilized to investigate the mental health of left-behind adolescents in relation to paternal attachment, self-esteem, and maternal nurturance. Standardized instruments were administered to 400 left-behind adolescents (LBAs) from two districts in Pakistan using a survey methodology. The results revealed that self-esteem mediated the influence of paternal attachment on LBAs’ mental health problems. Furthermore, maternal nurturance moderated the first part of the mediation process.

Family functioning and behavioral problems among left-behind adolescent: Self-esteem as a mediator and mother nurturance as a moderator

Behavioral Problems (BPs) in Pakistani Left-behind adolescents (LBA) remain under-investigated. Previous studies exposed that family functioning had a profound effect on LBAs’ behavioral problems, but the mediating and moderating mechanisms that cause this effect are under-studied. In this study, we planned to investigate factors linked with BPs in a large sample of LBAs. This study conferred how left-behind adolescents (LBA) perception of family functioning (FF) influenced their behavioral problems (BPs) through self-esteem (SE). This study also explicated how mother nurturance (MN) affected family functioning direct effects on self-esteem, as well as family functioning indirect effects on BPs via self-esteem. The data for the present research was collected from 400 LBAs in three waves from Rawalpindi and Rawalakot, Pakistan. The results indicates that family functioning had a significant negative predictive impact on BPs. Furthermore, SE acts as a mediator between family functioning and LBAs’ BPs. The outcomes further explicated that mother nurturance has moderating effect on the relationship between family functioning and self-esteem as well as indirect effects on BPs through self-esteem supporting the moderating mediation model. This research offers some innovative implications for practice and research. So, identifying the issues of left-behind adolescents can provide imperative understandings for the development of interventions aiming at the mental health of left-behind adolescents and need to be implemented to improve family functioning in migrant fathers’ family.

Network Analysis of Health-related Behaviors, Insomnia, and Depression Among Urban Left-behind Adolescents in China.

Mental health of urban left-behind adolescents (LBA) is a public issue of growing concern. This study aims to examine the symptom level associations among multiple health-related behaviors, insomnia, and depression in urban LBA. Data on a sample of urban LBA aged 11-19 (N = 3,601) from the Adolescent Mental Health Survey in Shenzhen, China, were used. Health-related behaviors (i.e., Internet use, physical inactivity, social jetlag, smoking, and alcohol consumption), insomnia, and depressive symptoms were assessed using a self-administered questionnaire. Graphical Gaussian Model (GGM) was used to describe key bridging nodes in an undirected network. Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) was used to construct a directed network and estimate the most likely causal associations among behaviors/symptoms. In the undirected network, Internet use was identified as the key bridging node most strongly associated with insomnia and depression. Two other key bridging nodes include difficulty initiating sleep and appetite change. In the directed network, anhedonia emerged as the most pivotal symptom, which could cause insomnia symptoms and behavioral changes, either directly, or through triggering other depressive symptoms, such as low energy and appetite change. These findings have implications for understanding the occurrence and maintenance process of health-related behaviors, insomnia, and depression in urban LBA. In practice, Internet use should be considered a priority in targeting multiple health behavior interventions. Meanwhile, early screening and treatment for anhedonia are of great significance as well.

Parental Migration, Social Relationships, and Left-Behind Adolescents’ Mental Health in Rural China: Examining Gender Differences

Parental Migration, Social Relationships, and Left-Behind Adolescents’ Mental Health in Rural China: Examining Gender Differences

The role of parental rejection and poverty in the development of prosocial behavior among left-behind adolescents in rural China

Studies have shown left-behind adolescents in rural China having less prosocial behavior than their non-left-behind peers. Although parenting styles have a role to play in the development of prosocial behavior, more studies are warranted to understand the underlying mechanisms and the conditions that could increase (or buffer) the positive (negative) association between parenting style and prosocial behavior. Based on the Parental Acceptance-Rejection Theory and other theoretical models, the present study proposed and tested a moderated mediation model to examine the mediating role of moral identity in the relationship between parental rejection and prosocial behavior as well as the moderating effects of subjective poverty on the relationship between parental rejection and prosocial behavior as well as between moral identity and prosocial behavior. A total of 714 rural left-behind adolescents in China answered a questionnaire comprising Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM), Short-form Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppfostran (s-EMBU, a measurement of parental rejection), Moral Self-identity Scale (MSS) and Subjective Poverty in their classrooms. Results showed that paternal rejection, but not maternal rejection, had an indirect negative relationship with prosocial behavior via moral identity. Moreover, subjective poverty moderated the direct relationship between paternal rejection and prosocial behavior as well as the relationship between moral identity and prosocial behavior, though the moderated mediation model was not supported. Specifically, the negative relationship between paternal rejection and prosocial behavior was strengthened when subjective poverty was low. Meanwhile, the positive relationship between moral identity and prosocial behavior was reinforced among adolescents with higher subjective poverty. The findings not only reveal the underlying mechanism of the relationship between parental rejection and prosocial behavior among rural left-behind adolescents but also highlight the necessity of incorporating the effect of subjective poverty.

Internet addiction and depressive and anxious symptoms among Chinese rural left-behind adolescents: Mediating roles of resilience and friendship quality.

Rural left-behind adolescents are more vulnerable to Internet addiction and depressive and anxious symptoms due to the lack of family support and parental supervision. This study was the first to investigate the longitudinal relationships between Internet addiction and depressive and anxious symptoms and to examine the mediating roles of resilience and friendship quality in rural left-behind adolescents. Included in this study, which was from a longitudinal study conducted five times over 2 years, were 1001 rural left-behind adolescents. The internationally used scales for depressive and anxious symptoms, Internet addiction, resilience and friendship quality were administered. A structural equation model was used for analysis. The prevalence of Internet addiction, depressive and anxious symptoms among rural left-behind adolescents were 17.7%, 35.8% and 27.6%, respectively. Internet addiction predicted the later depressive and anxious symptoms (β = 0.200, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.116-0.274 and β = 0.263, 95% CI: 0.188-0.330). Resilience acted as an independent mediator in the relationships between Internet addiction and depressive and anxious symptoms (β = 0.037 and 0.034, P < 0.01). Resilience and friendship quality played a chain-mediating role on the longitudinal relationships between Internet addiction and depressive and anxious symptoms (β = 0.011 and 0.010, P < 0.001). The mediating effects accounted for 24.0% and 16.7% of the total effects, respectively. Resilience and friendship quality play an independent or chain-mediating role in longitudinal relationships between Internet addiction and depressive and anxious symptoms. The findings inform targeted intervention strategies to improve the mental health of left-behind adolescents.