Leavening Research Articles

Influence of different leavening agents on technological and nutritional characteristics of whole grain breads obtained from ancient and modern flour varieties

The aim of the work was to assess the influence of the leavening agent on several technological, chemical, and nutritional characteristics of breads prepared with whole soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flours. As leavening agents in bread-making, baker’s yeast, biga, and sourdough were utilized. Two ancient varieties, Andriolo and Verna, and a modern grain variety, Bologna, were used. Analysis of the obtained breads included the measurement of the phenols content, the antioxidant activity, the in vitro protein and total digestibility, the texture profile, the crumb grain characteristics and the microbial shelf-life test. The results of the principle component analysis of bread features indicated a clustering depending especially on the leavening agent rather than on the employed flour, particularly when sourdough was used. Protein digestibility, crumb grain characteristics, and shelf-life led to the main differences among the samples. Ancient wheat flour displayed similar features when the same leavening agent was applied. Particularly, the use of sourdough levelled the differences due to flour, leading to breads with similar technological and nutritional characteristics. The findings highlighted a marked effect of the leavening agent on bread final characteristics.

Utilisation of Potato Peel in Fabricated Potato Snack

To address the problem of dietary restraint of health-conscious people, a techno-feasible process for development of low-fat and high-fibre fabricated potato snack has been standardised. The product was optimised on the basis of fat and fibre content, browning index, hardness, crunchiness, and overall acceptability (OAA) by using the central composite rotatable design (CCRD) of response surface methodology (RSM). The fabricated snacks with an average thickness of 2.06 mm contained 5.04–5.24% moisture. Hardness and browning index of baked potato snack was significantly influenced by peel incorporation followed by fat content and leavening agent. Maximum crunchiness was achieved at lower peel (~1.5%) and fat (~2.25%) addition. Leavening agent and fat demonstrated a positive effect on the overall acceptability of the snack. The maximum OAA (8.58) was achieved when both peel and fat were in range but at maximum level of leavening agent. Incorporation of 1.84% potato peel, 4.80% fat, and 1.60% leavening agent resulted in a well-accepted fabricated potato snack which can be categorised as ‘low fat’ and ‘good source of fibre’ since a 30-g serving of this fabricated snack provided < 3 g fat and 2.5–4.9 g fibre. The developed technology can diversify the present processed potato product range with effective utilisation of its peel.

Formulation of New Baking (+)-Catechin Based Leavening Agents: Effects on Rheology, Sensory and Antioxidant Features during Muffin Preparation.

The aim of this investigation was to prepare two solid mixtures containing a soluble polymorph of (+)-catechin and mucic (MUC) or tartaric (TAR) acids as new leavening agents. The solid mixtures were based on a polymorph of (+)-catechin, characterized through Powder X-ray Diffraction (PXRD) analysis and assayed in in vitro antioxidant and solubility assays. The dough samples were studied by dynamic rheological tests, while muffins were studied through Headspace Solid-Phase Microextraction (HS-SPME)/Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis to identify volatile compounds, in vitro tests to evaluate antioxidant properties, and sensory analyses. TAR powder showed a solubility in water almost one order of magnitude increased with respect to commercial (+)-catechin (40.0 against 4.6 mg mL−1) and increased antioxidant performances. In particular, TAR showed total phenolic content (TPC) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) values of 0.0298 ± 0.021 and 0.0081 ± 0.0009 meq CT/g, while MUC showed better results in terms of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) acid (DPPH) and 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS), 0.518 ± 0.015 and 0.112 ± 0.010 mg/mL, respectively. MS analysis identified different compounds derived from the lipid oxidation process. Muffins obtained using both powders showed interesting outcomes regarding dough process and appreciable appearance/olfactory/taste/texture profiles. Muffins obtained from TAR-based mixture showed also a total phenolic content of 0.00175 meq CT/g muffin, and almost two times improved TAC and scavenger activity against DPPH radical. The formulated powders could be used as suitable health-promoting ingredients in the food industry.

Overcoming bread quality decay concerns: main issues for bread shelf life as a function of biological leavening agents and different extra ingredients used in formulation. A review.

As is widely accepted, the quality decay of freshly baked bread that affects product shelf life is the result of a complex multifactorial process that involves physical staling, together with microbiological, chemical and sensorial spoilage. In this context, this paper provides a critical review of the recent literature about the main factors affecting shelf life of bread during post-baking. An overview of the recent findings about the mechanism of bread staling is firstly provided. Afterwards, the effect on staling induced by baker's yeasts and sourdough as well as by the extra ingredients commonly utilized for bread fortification is also addressed and discussed. As inclusion/exclusion criteria, only papers dealing with wheat bread and not with long-life bread or gluten-free bakery products are taken into consideration. Despite recent developments in international scientific literature, the whole mechanism that induces bread staling is far from being completely understood and the best analytical methods to be adopted to measure and/or describe in depth this process appear still debated. In this topic, the effects induced on bread shelf life by the use of biological leavening agents (baker's yeasts and sourdough) as well as by some extra ingredients included in the bread recipe have been individuated as two key issues to be addressed and discussed in terms of their influence on the kinetics of bread staling. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Printing of Graphene Supercapacitors with Enhanced Capacitances Induced By a Leavening Agent

The rapid development of portable and wearable electronics has been driving a demand for lightweight and flexible energy storage systems. In this regard, flexible supercapacitors are considered as promising since they possess long cycle life and high power rates. Among available materials for supercapacitor electrodes, graphene has gained considerable attention in recent years, due to its high specific surface area, high thermal and electronic conductivity as well as other favourable mechanical features. A key challenge for the development of graphene supercapacitors is associated with the scalability and simplicity of the fabrication process. Although printing technologies offer a rapid, precise, scalable, and cost-effective fabrication method for energy storage systems, printed graphene-based supercapacitors usually deliver a lower capacitance compared to those fabricated with other methods, which is mainly related to the re-stacking of the graphene sheets after printing.This work presents a straightforward and scalable leavening agent-assisted approach in order to enhance the capacitance of printed flexible graphene-based supercapacitors. Our method consists of increasing the surface area of the reduced graphene oxide electrodes (rGO) due to the addition of the leavening agent ammonium carbonate to the GO ink. The inks are printed with a micro-dispensing technique. During reduction of GO to rGO, the leavening agent decomposes and gases are released which enlarge the inter-flake gaps and therefore suppresses the restacking of the GO flakes. The lateral size is a key parameter that controls the self-alignment of the GO flakes and, thus, has an impact on the capacitance of rGO electrodes. To assess the effect of the lateral flake size, three stock dispersions with different size ranges were prepared. In detail, the processed dispersions contained flakes with lateral sizes in the nano- (< 100 nm), submicro- (0.1 - 1.0 µm) or the micro-meter (> 1.0 µm) range. Experiments were performed to investigate the relationships between GO lateral size, the concentration of leavening agent and the capacitance of the printed rGO electrodes. In absence of the leavening agent, the specific capacitance slightly decreases with an increase of the flake size. In contrast, for inks with leavening agent concentrations of 3.0 and 6.0 wt. %, the specific capacitance increases with increasing flake size. The experiments reveal that there is a maximum specific capacitance of 112.1 ± 6.5 F g-1 at a leavening concentration of 3.7 wt. %. This specific capacitance is significantly higher compared to that of the electrode without the leavening agent approach (62.4 ± 5.2 F g-1) indicating a successful process for increasing the gaps between rGO flakes. With respect to cycle life, it is observed that the risen electrodes maintain better long-term capacitance stability compared to agent-free electrodes. The electrodes with the leavening agent approach feature an 85% capacitance retention after 2,000 charge-discharge cycles at a current density of 1.0 A g-1 while the leavening agent-free electrodes show a gradual capacitance decay to 80 %. Figure 1

Changing chemical leavening to improve the structural, textural and sensory properties of functional cakes with blackcurrant pomace

Blackcurrant pomace is a by-product with bioactive compounds and dietary fibre, which can be used as ingredient to elaborate bakery products. However, its high content of fibre results in techno-functional problems affecting texture and sensory properties. We hypothesised that the use of different chemical leavening agents can counteract the negative effects of pomace addition improving the quality of the final product. Citric acid, sodium acid pyrophosphate, and glucono-δ-lactone were used as leavening agents in combination with sodium bicarbonate (encapsulated and free). A micro-baking simulation showed the expansion of the bubbles in the batter. In the cakes, the structure, texture, colour and sensory profile were studied. Cakes prepared with pyrophosphate (regardless bicarbonate type) and glucono-δ-lactone (plus free bicarbonate) incorporated more air, which led to bigger gas cells and a softer instrumental texture. These cakes were perceived as brittle and spongy. All the formulations were acceptable according to an untrained sensory panel.

Leavening Agents: The Chemistry of Baking Discovered with a Computer-Based Learning

Knowing the volume of evolved gases is helpful to select an optimal leavening agent for a particular application. The comparison of leavening agents, their reactions through the baking process in t...

Printing of graphene supercapacitors with enhanced capacitances induced by a leavening agent

The excellent electrical and mechanical properties of graphene make it a promising electrode material for energy storage devices such as supercapacitors. However, graphene flakes tend to restack upon processing which lowers the inner electrode surface area that contacts the electrolyte. We report on a straightforward and scalable approach where we add a chemical leavening agent to suppress the restacking of printed and reduced graphene oxide (rGO) flakes, resulting in a significant enhancement of the electrode capacitance. Upon mild heating, the leavening agent releases gasses that rise the gaps between rGO flakes and, hence, increase the surface area that is accessible for the electrolyte. We also optimize ink and micro-dispensing process that is utilized to print such risen rGO electrodes. The supercapacitor characterization indicates that the capacitance enhancement strongly depends on the size of the GO flakes; sizes on the order of magnitude of microns are most suitable. The printed and risen rGO electrodes feature typical electrical double layer capacitance behavior along with a good cycling stability having an 82% capacitance retention after 5000 charge-discharge cycles at a current density of 1.0 A/g.

Effects of leavening agents in batter system on quality of deep-fried chicken breast meat

The crispiness is an important parameter of battered chicken meat products and could be improved by adding leavening agents such as baking powder and dried yeast. This work was aimed to study the effect of different leavening agents added on the quality characteristics of battered chicken meat. Chicken breast meat strips were dipped into batters using different type of leavening agent; control (without a leavening agent); 4% baking powder (1), 4% dried yeast (2) and 2% baking powder + 2% dried yeast (3). The batter was kept in room temperature (RT) and cold temperature (CT) for one hour after coating. Moisture content, fat content, the viscosity of batter formulation, color, texture and sensory of fried battered chicken meat strips were evaluated. Moisture contents of RT3 and CT3 were significantly higher compared to other treatments while the fat content and viscosity of RT3 and CT3 were among the lowest. The RT2 and CT2 resulted in the lightest color. Compared to control samples, the addition of baking powder and yeast increased crispiness (fracturability and hardness) which was higher when used in combination than alone. Sensory evaluation of quality attributes showed crispiness and overall acceptability for RT3 and CT3 were among the highest. From the experiment, formulation 3 displayed the best effect of the leavening agents (a combination of baking powder and dried yeast) in batter system which produced lower fat, high moisture content, and crispier deep-fried chicken breast meat.

Effect of different leavening agents on the nutritional characteristics of two durum wheat breads

Two durum wheat bread samples produced using the same re-milled semolina but different leavening agents (sourdough and compressed yeast) have been considered in this study. Chemical composition, color characteristics, lutein content and starch digestibility have been addressed in both samples. In addition, to evaluate possible modifications induced on the protein structure attributable to the different leavening agents used, the secondary structure of proteins was also studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The crumb of bread sample produced by compressed yeast exhibited a higher yellow index compared to the other sample but this difference was completely lost in crust because of the high baking temperature applied. Lutein resulted more preserved after the yeast fermentation due to the shorter time required for the fermentation with respect to sourdough. Total starch and resistant starch content resulted comparable in the two samples with the latter about 1% in both samples. The infrared spectroscopic study of the protein amide I band showed the lack of the random coil structure, related to the protein denaturation, and negligible changes in the relative ratios among the α-helix, β-sheet and β-turn secondary structures of proteins.

Effect of commercial dried sourdoughs on structural characteristics of wheat bread

This study investigated the effect of the addition of three commercial dried sourdoughs containing different percentages of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (25-30%), on structural characteristics of wheat bread. Rheology, texture and physicochemical characteristics were assessed for both dough and final bread. Control samples were prepared using common dried bakery’s yeast (100% S. cerevisiae). The rheological parameters complex viscosity (?), linear viscoelastic region (LVR), storage and loss modulus (G’ and G’’) and angular tangent (tand) were evaluated on the doughs through rheological tests carried out both in rotational and oscillatory mode. Final breads were characterised for the texture profile (hardness, springiness, cohesiveness and resilience). Moisture content and pH were monitored during the process. The leavening agents (dried sourdoughs and bakery’s yeast) were characterized for the content of total lactic acid bacteria and total yeasts. Rheological analysis highlighted a pseudo-plastic behaviour for all the doughs with the elastic component prevalent on the viscous one (G’>G’’), without substantial differences among samples before proofing. After 3 h leavening, storage and loss moduli and complex viscosity were lower than control for all the sourdough samples. Microbial evaluation showed no vital lactic acid bacteria in the dried sourdough that, contrary to the other two, did not give acidification during leavening and produced a final bread with texture properties comparable to those of the control.

Protein fortification with mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powder: Effect on textural, microbiological, nutritional and sensory features of bread.

In the present study, inclusion of mealworm (Tenebrio molitor L.) powder into bread doughs at 5 and 10% substitution level of soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour was tested to produce protein fortified breads. The addition of mealworm powder (MP) did not negatively affect the technological features of either doughs or breads. All the tested doughs showed the same leavening ability, whereas breads containing 5% MP showed the highest specific volume and the lowest firmness. An enrichment in protein content was observed in experimental breads where the highest values for this parameter were recorded in breads containing 10% MP. Breads fortified with 10% MP also exhibited a significant increase in the content of free amino acids, and especially in the following essential amino acids: tyrosine, methionine, isoleucine, and leucine. By contrast, no differences in nutritional quality of lipids were seen between fortified and control breads. Results of sensory analyses revealed that protein fortification of bread with MP significantly affected bread texture and overall liking, as well as crust colour, depending on the substitution level. Overall, proof of concept was provided for the inclusion of MP into bread doughs started with different leavening agents (sourdough and/or baker’s yeast), at 5 or 10% substitution level of soft wheat flour. Based on the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) scale, the proposed bread making technology can be situated at level 4 (validation in laboratory environment), thus suggesting that the production of breads with MP might easily be scaled up at industrial level. However, potential spoilage and safety issues that need to be further considered were highlighted.

Distribution of genes producing phenol colour reaction in grains of wheat and its related species, mode of inheritance and breeding for low polyphenol activity

One of the important chapati quality traits pertains to the darkening of whole meal dough and its subsequent effect on browning of chapatis (unleavened Indian bread). The grain pericarp of most of the bread wheat varieties grown in India reacts to phenolic compounds and produce dark brown or brown colour. The present investigation undertook a most intriguing challenge to breed a variety, which do not react to phenol and does not darken the dough. A large number of wild wheat species, bread wheat cultivars, durum wheat and synthetic hexaploid (SH) wheat were screened to identify wheat genotype(s) with negative reaction to phenol. A variety of phenol reactions were recorded among the wheat species having different genomes. Most of the Aegilops squarrosa and Triticum timopheevi accessions showed negative colour reaction. Two phenol non-reactive (-ve) SH wheats (SH26 and SH32) were crossed with hexaploid bread wheat variety, HD 2851 with positive reaction (+ve) to phenol. Phenol test of F1 grains reacted positively and produced dark brown colour on pericarp indicating that the phenol colour reaction is a dominant trait. The F2 population segregated into two categories where the grains of 746 plants developed colour and 13 were non reactive (-ve colour or no colour). The Chi-square analysis revealed that development of phenol colour in grains is governed by three dominant alleles as the observed frequency of plants fit well into theoretical ratio of 63 (+ve) : 1 (-ve). The subsequent BC1-F2 and BC2-F2 generations were simultaneously tested with phenol to facilitate selection of the genotypes with –ve reaction. A few genetic stocks and selections derived from multi-parent-cross did not develop colour upon testing with polyphenol. These genetic stocks have been improved further in respect of other agronomic traits. In Addition, an alternative chemical to phenol was discovered, which gave comparable results, safer to use, would not affect germinability adversely and thus amenable to high through put application in breeding programme.

Effect of carboxymethyl cellulose on properties of wheat flour-tapioca starch-based batter and fried, battered chicken product

Hydrocolloid is widely used to improve the quality of food. In this study, the effect of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) on the properties of batter and fried, battered product prepared from wheat flour (WF)-tapioca starch (TS) blends was investigated. The dry-mixes were prepared from the flour blends of 91.4% flour blend [WF/TS (1:1) and CMC (0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75% or 1.0%)], 5.5% salt and 3.1% leavening agent and then mixed with water (1:1.3) for batter preparation. The batters had a significant increase in consistency coefficient, yield stress and batter pickup with increasing CMC replacement in the dry mix. However, CMC did not significantly (p > 0.05) alter either the differential scanning calorimetry thermal properties of the batters or the rapid visco-analyzer viscosity after holding at 95 °C for 4 min. The substitution of CMC decreased the oil content but increased the moisture content in the pre-fried chicken wing sticks. After final frying at 180 °C, the oil content of the fried product was significantly (p < 0.05) reduced in the samples containing CMC (equal to or more than 0.5% in dry-mix). There were no significant (p > 0.05) differences in the overall liking scores in the fried products without and with 0.5% CMC replacement in the flour blend. The results indicated that CMC could be used in WF/TS batter preparation, enhancing the batter pickup and quality and especially acting as an oil barrier-forming ingredient for fried, battered foods.

Effects of Sourdough on FODMAPs in Bread and Potential Outcomes on Irritable Bowel Syndrome Patients and Healthy Subjects.

Background: Fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAPs) are an heterogeneous group of compounds that can be poorly digested and may have a range of effects on gastrointestinal processes. FODMAPs are found in a wide variety of foods, including bread. FODMAPs’ intake is associated with the onset of symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). On the other hand, some FODMAPs contribute to the healthy maintenance of intestinal microbiota. Volume increase of bread dough commonly relies on the use of two biological leavening agents, sourdough and baker’s yeast and, in some cases, a combination of both.Scope and Approach: The main objective of this review is to discuss the association between FODMAPs and IBS, beneficial effects of FODMAPs on healthy subjects and potential impact of biological leavening agents on FODMAPs content of bread.Key Findings and Conclusion: Given that yeasts and lactic acid bacteria, the dominant microorganisms in sourdough, may degrade FODMAPs, it would be possible to modulate the FODMAPs concentration in bread, thus positively affecting consumers’ health.

Lifestyles of sourdough lactobacilli – Do they matter for microbial ecology and bread quality?

Sourdough is used in production of (steamed) bread as leavening agent (type I sourdoughs) or as baking improver to enhance flavour, texture, and shelf life of bread (type II sourdoughs). The long-term propagation of sourdoughs eliminates dispersal limitation and consistently leads to sourdough microbiota that are composed of host adapted lactobacilli. In contrast, community assembly in spontaneous cereal fermentations is limited by dispersal and nomadic or environmental lactic acid bacteria are the first colonizers of these sourdoughs.Propagation of sourdoughs for use as sole leavening agent (type I sourdoughs) dictates fermentation conditions that select for rapid growth. Type I wheat- and rye sourdoughs are consistently populated by insect-adapted lactobacilli, particularly Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis, which is characterized by a small genome size and a restricted metabolic potential. The diverse fermentation conditions employed in industrial or artisanal Type II sourdough fermentation processes also result in a more diverse microbiota. Nevertheless, type II sourdoughs are typically populated by vertebrate host adapted lactobacilli of the L. delbrueckii and L. reuteri groups. Metabolic traits of host-adapted lactobacilli that enhance competitiveness in intestinal ecosystems also provide technological functionality in bread making. Examples include formation of exopolysaccharides, arginine-, glutamine- and glutamate based mechanisms of acid resistance, and glycosyl hydrolases that reduce FODMAP levels in sourdough and sourdough bread. In conclusion, consideration of the lifestyle of sourdough lactobacilli facilitates the selection of competitive and functional sourdough starter cultures.

THE CONTACT OF LANGUAGES

The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that languages in general adopt the monogenetic approach and evolve in a totally independent milieu, and that, however much one fosters the polygenetic approach, they still remain none the less identifable in the light of the characteristics which distinguish and almost isolate them for and as what they are or are supposed to be, whilst at the same time glaringly revealing the crossbreeding elements without which they would not even exist. And this lifelong contact, which exists since the very beginning, should there be any origin that were rigorously traceable and identifable as such, which probably exists even before any origin as such, between languages, this very real contact, although it may seem well-nigh inexistent, this contact which is all the more real as it is unconscious and seems to be perfectly passive, gives, provided we, be it even slightly, develop a conscious and active awareness of it–whence the crucial role of teachers, grammarians, linguists, philosophers and writers– rise both to prospects of hospitality and to risks of hostility, of rejection, due, inter alia, to a sense of fear which, albeit understandable, can only be justifed and explained by the presence or imminence of a cultural siege which it will be precisely up to the teachers, grammarians, linguists, philosophers and writers, though not only to them, to contain, if not to annihilate, so much so that any germ, however unavoidable it may be, of opposition and/or of conflict, may lead to the laying out of an area as much as to the inauguration of an era which will always, upon pain of transmogrifcation into idols, into ideologies, owe it to the atmosphere of renewal, once again the work of teachers, grammarians, linguists, philosophers and writers, but very soon, perhaps thanks to them, the work of one and all, therein prevailing, to keep existing in order that the only outcome resulting from conflict and cooperation, from conflictooperation, may be the mutual enrichment of everybody in a climate of conviviality, the prelude to a perpetual peace amongst human beings, not in spite of their diversity, but because of and thanks to this very diversity. But for this to be possible, to happen, the mere acknowledgement, should it be assumed to be a real and, even, daily occurence, or recognized as such, of contacts between languages, the immediate corollary of which should be the banishment of all forms of nationalism, of all forms of linguistic chauvinism, the dung whence originates the leaven of discord and on which thrive all expressions of bellicosity against the backdrop of a hostile and hateful rejection of any form, of even any semblance of difference, won’t suffice: what is needed is a constant and active reactivation, and activation too, of this contact, of these contacts, which unendingly transform and renew as many languages as possible and all of them if possible, in the whirlpool of a polyphony which, making of them aliens to themselves, brings them closer and closer to one another, for the advent of a new humanity which keeps enriching itself perhaps much more thanks to its differences, than it blossoms through what would constitute a celebration of its fundamental unity.

Baking Powder Wars: The Cutthroat Food Fight that Revolutionized Cooking by Linda Civitello

Reviewed by: Baking Powder Wars: The Cutthroat Food Fight that Revolutionized Cooking by Linda Civitello Cynthia Ross Baking Powder Wars: The Cutthroat Food Fight that Revolutionized Cooking. By Linda Civitello. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2017. ix +252 pp. Illustrations, appendix, notes, bibliography, index. $19.95 paper. Linda Civitello’s latest book, Baking Powder Wars: The Cutthroat Food Fight that Revolutionized Cooking, is quite a departure from her previous globally centered and broad work, Cuisine and Culture: A History of Food and People. An attractive, full-color cover photograph of an old baking powder canister shot full of holes promises that the reader is about to embark on a raucous adventure of the leavening agent’s history. Yes, baking powder and raucous adventure just occurred together in the same sentence. Happily, Civitello’s work does not disappoint in creating a stimulating history of a now ubiquitous American ingredient. Using numerous public, private, and corporate collections in California and throughout the Midwest, the author has meticulously researched the development of baking powder and its indelible links to industrialization, corporate structures, food policy, and advertisements touting quick-rising breads as a key feature of the American dream. However, Civitello writes more than a straightforward business history. Before delving into the trade wars of baking powder moguls, she vividly explores how properly made daily bread—with the right amount of rise, a tender crumb, and consistently good flavor—was for centuries chiefly the burden of women. By the eighteenth century, bread making was closely associated with domesticity, wholesomeness, health, and purity. The stakes were high for women who struggled to turn out quality daily bread using potentially inconsistent leavening agents. Every loaf was potentially a shaming tool, used to either prove or ridicule her virtue as a good wife and mother. In response, women strove to create consistent and quick chemical leavening agents in their kitchens to alleviate the physical and social burdens of bread making. Their experiments with wood ash and tartaric acid eventually became the basis for a nationwide industry. Science refined baking powder production and improved the preciseness of the chemical process by the early nineteenth century. Chemical leavening became big business after the end of the American Civil War, with each company closely guarding their own recipe. Civitello [End Page 245] does well to carefully point out how the baking powder industry fit into the larger development of Gilded Age consumer culture with its foundation of consistent mass production. In the associated advertising war, businesses focused their efforts on women, attempting to create both brand loyalty and assuage any lingering doubts about the safety of chemical leaveners in a multi-decade media campaign. By the end of the century, midwestern baking powder manufacturers like Calumet, Rumford, Royal, and Clabber (later Clabber Girl) dominated the industry and grocers’ shelves. With industrial food production solidifying its place in American life in the first half of the twentieth century, the battle over baking powder shifted to the Federal Trade Commission and a resultant proliferation of self-rising flour, cake mixes, and quick breads touted as the solution to home baking for working women and harried housewives. By the twenty-first century, baking powder was ever-present but rarely considered due to this marked increase in quick mixes and commercial bakeries along with a significant decline in home baking. The recent antimodernist food movement has not changed that substantially. Civitello’s work is, as promised, an exciting exploration of baking powder and a welcome addition to studies of food history. Using the seemingly ubiquitous white powder found in most kitchens across the United States as a device to trace the historic role of women in food production, the rise of industrial food and adoption of early chemical food additives, and evolving patterns of consumption is no small task. Civitello accomplishes that and proves baking powder is indeed as American as buttermilk biscuits. Cynthia Ross Department of History Texas A&M University–Commerce Copyright © 2018 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

Milling overrides cultivar, leavening agent and baking mode on chemical and rheological traits and sensory perception of durum wheat breads

Smell and aroma are important determinants of consumer acceptance, so gaining deeper insight into bread smell and aroma perception is a research goal. Sixteen combinations of four variables were investigated, to evaluate the contributions of bread chemical and rheological properties and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) towards sensory acceptability of breads: genotypes (landrace vs. modern); types of flour (wholemeal vs. semolina); leavening agents (brewing yeast vs. sourdough starter); and baking modes (gas-fired vs. wood-fired). Milling had the greatest impact over the other treatments for the rheological and chemical properties, including for VOCs, with great impact on the sensory traits of the flours and breads. The processing phases had great impact on smell and aroma, as defined through formation of alcohols, aldehydes, terpenes, and other compounds (e.g., ethylbenzene, 2-pentylfuran, methoxyphenyl oxime). Leavening agent had great impact on sensory perception, although breads from the sourdough starter were perceived as with lower taste and colour than the brewing yeast. Baking mode had no relevant role on sensory perception. These data strongly undermine the belief of a ‘better product’ that is frequently attributed to old genotypes versus modern cultivars, and indicate that the milling and the bread-making processes determine the quality of the end product.

Influence of Cookies Formulation on the Formation of Acrylamide

This study examined the effects of cookie ingredients and cookie formulation without adding leavening agents, sodium bicarbonate and ammonium bicarbonate, sucrose, glucose, fructose and adding chitosan on the pH, water activity, browning index, reducing sugar of cookies and the formation of acrylamide. High browning index value (218) of control cookies was found, as compared to a combination of ingredients, model cookies (33), cake flour and water during 15 min baking. Higher browning index value (83) of model cookies with the addition of shortening did not show a high acrylamide concentration. The highest mitigation (55.2%) of acrylamide formation was obtained by removing ammonium bicarbonate in control cookie formulation. The formation of acrylamide showed a positive correlation with the cookie baking time. The baking time significantly influences the physicochemical properties of cookies. Ammonium bicarbonate was the most effective ingredient in terms of causing the formation of acrylamide in cookie formulation. The addition of chitosan was also able to mitigate the formation of acrylamide during baking.