L2 Learners Research Articles

Examining Cross-linguistic Influence of Japanese Word Order: An Eye-Tracking Study on L2 English Learners’ Text Comprehension

Cross-linguistic influence is a systematic and unavoidable feature of language learning. This study aimed to investigate whether prepositive word order in Japanese noun clauses can serve as a cross-linguistic influence element in the acquisition of relative clauses (a form of a postpositive modifier) in English. To test this hypothesis, this study conducted an eye-tracking experiment with native Japanese speakers and showed the following results statistically. First, Japanese participants generally paid more attention to modifier clauses than the noun phrases they modified when reading English sentences with relative clauses. Second, when interpreting accusative relative clauses, longer fixations were observed both in the modifier clauses and in the antecedents, likely due to their complexity for Japanese L2 learners of English, as evidenced by the lowest accuracy rate. Finally, and most notably, the findings revealed that the participants who had not fully acquired the relative clause construction focused more on the left side of the relative pronoun than those who had. This tendency was most prominent when interpreting subjective relative clauses, a result that supports the hypothesis that prepositive L1 modifiers could be a CLI element in the acquisition of English postpositive modifiers.

Shadowing textbook and authentic materials in beginning L2 learners’ acquisition of Mandarin Chinese tones in spontaneous speech

Abstract Addressing the lack of research examining the use of discourse-level speech input in beginning L2 learners’ Mandarin tone production in spontaneous speech, this study compares the effects of authentic videos and textbook audios as shadowing materials on beginners’ multisyllabic tone production in spontaneous speech and learner attitudes. Fourteen college students, randomly divided into the “authentic” and “textbook” groups, shadowed for four weeks. From the pretest to the posttest, both groups significantly improved tone accuracy in sentence-level spontaneous speech with no significant differences between groups. Quantitative and qualitative analyses of learners’ responses show that (1) both groups had positive attitudes toward the materials, (2) authentic materials generated greater interest, and learners appreciated shadowing authentic conversations or conversations that mimic natural discourse, and (3) the learners primarily cared about whether the materials were comprehensible, interesting, and accessible. The findings shed light on using authentic materials to teach L2 pronunciation.

An Overview of Empirical Research on Domain-Specific Grit in L2 Learning Contexts

An Overview of Empirical Research on Domain-Specific Grit in L2 Learning Contexts

Redundancy can hinder adult L2 grammar learning: evidence from case markers of varying salience levels.

Grammatical redundancy is a widespread feature across languages. Although redundant cues can be seen to increase the complexity and processing burden of structures, it has been suggested that they can assist language acquisition. Here, we explored if this learning benefit can be observed from the very initial stages of second language (L2) acquisition and whether the effect of redundancy is modulated by the perceptual salience of the redundant linguistic cues. Across two experiments, three groups of adult native speakers of English were incidentally exposed to three different artificial languages; one that had a fixed word order, Verb-Object-Subject, and two in which thematic role assignment was additionally determined by a low-salient (Experiment 1) or a high-salient (Experiment 2) redundant case marker. While all groups managed to learn the novel language, our results pointed towards a hindering role of redundancy, with participants in the non-redundant condition achieving greater learning outcomes compared to those in both redundant conditions. Results also revealed that this impeding effect of redundancy on L2 learners can be attenuated by the salience of the redundant cue (Experiment 2). In conjunction with earlier findings, the present results suggest that the effect of redundancy on L2 acquisition can be differentially manifested depending on the stage of L2 development, learners' first language biases and age.

How is discursive practice on l2 learners conducted? Exploring peace values in environmental conservation texts in textbooks for Indonesian language for foreign speakers

How is discursive practice on l2 learners conducted? Exploring peace values in environmental conservation texts in textbooks for Indonesian language for foreign speakers

Acceptance and engagement patterns of mobile-assisted language learning among non-conventional adult L2 learners: A survival analysis

Acceptance and engagement patterns of mobile-assisted language learning among non-conventional adult L2 learners: A survival analysis

L2 interactional competence in a short-term service-learning and study abroad program

Abstract This case study explores one Spanish L2 learner’s interactional competence (IC) during a short-term study abroad program that featured service-learning (SL). The goal of the study is to describe the learner’s IC in interactions in the SL context. Data for analysis derive primarily from dialogues between the focal participant and interlocutors from her SL network and are analyzed qualitatively using Young’s (2019) categories of identity, linguistic, and interactional resources. Key findings include: (a) the participant co-constructed identities as an American and a teacher with her interlocutors; (b) use of linguistic resources suggests accommodation to Peninsular Spanish, possibly heightened by increased contact with native speakers in SL; and (c) SL afforded a space where the learner felt confident trying out linguistic and interactional features. Findings describe the participant’s IC and suggest the value of the SL context for meaningful interaction in short-term study abroad programs.

The relative effects of direct and indirect written corrective feedback on L2 learning: The moderating role of field dependence/independence

The current study investigated the relative effects of direct and indirect written corrective feedback (WCF) on the learning of regular past tense, and the extent to which learning outcomes were related to individual variation in field dependence/independence (FDI). Fifty-nine Chinese intermediate second language (L2) learners of English were randomly assigned to two treatment groups and a control group. The two treatment groups carried out three written dictogloss tasks and received direct WCF and indirect WCF, respectively, on their erroneous use of regular past tense. The control group performed the same writing tasks but received feedback on the content of their writing. To evaluate the effect of treatment, a grammaticality judgement task and a picture description task were administered as the pretest, immediate posttest, and delayed posttest. The Group Embedded Figures Test was used to measure learners’ FDI orientation. The results showed that both treatment groups outperformed the control group on the posttests, but no significant differences were observed between the two treatment groups. In addition, the results suggested that FDI was related to learning outcomes as measured by the picture description task. Field independent learners had an overall advantage over field dependent learners, especially where indirect WCF was provided.

Initial Assessment of First Language Literacy Resources for Adult Instruction in Swedish

This study is part of a project on initial assessment of first language (L1) literacy in adult newcomers prior to the commencement of L2 studies in Swedish. Here, we explore the assessment summaries of newcomers’ L1 literacy, performed by L2-teachers, with assistance from an interpreter. According to the syllabus, instruction in Swedish for Immigrants (SFI) should be adapted to the individual´s needs and goals; however, SFI often fails to do so. L1 literacy—i.e., using texts in different domains (school, work, society, and everyday life)—serves as a foundation for L2 learning and teachers’ access to and utilization of students L1 literacy can significantly enhance instruction. From a sociocultural approach to literacy and based on Luke and Freebody’s ‘Four Resource Model’, a qualitative document analyses of L1 literacy assessment summaries (N = 50) demonstrated literacy practices form different domains of student life, beyond school literacy. Literacy practices from all four learner roles, i.e., Code-Breaker, Text Participant, Text User and Text Analyst were identified in the assessments to various degrees dependent on the students’ background, which is illustrated by a close analysis of 5 summaries. This information is both important for teachers’ planning of second language teaching and in the long term for the development of second language teacher education.

Accommodation and Language Contact.

The paper introduces the Special Issue on Language Contact and Speaker Accommodation, which originates from the conference Phonetics and Phonology in Europe (PaPE) held at the University of Lecce, Italy, in 2019. It discusses the topics of language contact and speaker accommodation, summarizing the contributions included in the Special Issue, and arguing explicitly in favour of a unitary view of how both temporary and stable changes happen in (part of) the linguistic systems. Accommodation is seen as the same gradual and non-homogeneous process at play in different contact settings. In the introductory sections, a discussion is offered on various situations in which linguistic systems are in contact and on the main factors that may be at play; the following sections offer an overview of the papers included in the Special Issue, which focus on accommodation in L2 and heritage speakers as well as on the time dimension of dialect or language societal contact. Finally, accommodation is discussed as the same process that is at work in any interaction, that may modify temporarily or long-term the system of L2 learners and bilinguals (e.g., immigrants), that usually affects in the long-term the heritage speakers' system, and that only in the long term can lead to language changes involving entire communities.

Relationship between young learners’ L2 proficiency and subject knowledge: evaluating a CLIL programme in China

While CLIL programmes have been extensively researched for their impact on L2 learning outcomes, the relationship between young learners’ L2 proficiency and subject knowledge has received less attention. This study aimed to address this research gap by examining the science content knowledge of two cohorts of Grade 5 students (n = 100) from two primary schools in China, with one school implementing a CLIL science programme and the other offering a conventional science programme. The study also investigated the correlation between science achievement and L2 proficiency, measured by assessing learners’ English speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills using the Cambridge Young Learners English Tests. Science knowledge was evaluated with a tailored test aligned with the National Science Curriculum. Results indicated no statistically significant differences in science achievement between CLIL and non-CLIL students, with the former achieving higher mean scores. We also found a significant positive correlation between science knowledge and overall L2 proficiency. Notably, receptive language skills significantly correlated with science scores, while productive language skills did not. These findings provide positive evidence for the potential effectiveness of CLIL programmes in the primary education setting in China.

Configurational impact of self-regulated writing strategy, writing anxiety, and perceived writing difficulty on EFL writing performance: an fsQCA approach

Previous research has indicated that writing performance of foreign/second language (L2) learners is influenced by their utilization of self-regulated writing strategies. Yet, the relationship between various self-regulated strategies and individual characteristics, such as writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty, has not been sufficiently examined. To bridge this gap, this study classified self-regulated writing strategies into four distinct types: cognitive, metacognitive, social behavioral, and motivational. These types were combined with L2 learners’ writing anxiety and writing difficulty to form conceptual models to predict high or low writing performance. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to gain a detailed understanding of the causal intricacies of writing performance. Data was collected from a sample of 94 students attending a university in eastern China. fsQCA revealed a variety of configurations associated with EFL writing performance, with six of them leading to high performance and four to low performance. These configurations highlight the complex causal relationship between students’ use of self-regulated writing strategies and their writing performance, while considering their writing anxiety and perceived writing difficulty. The study provided theoretical and practical implications for L2 teachers and educators who wish to enhance L2 learners’ writing performance.

How music facilitates second language (L2) learning: a systematic review from 2002 to 2022

ABSTRACT Background: Applying music to learners’ language learning/acquisition has a long research history. However, given that second language (L2) learning/acquisition is a complex process, the studies regarding applying music to L2 learning/acquisition are comparatively fragmented. Objectives: This review work analysed 87 articles that applied music to L2 learning/acquisition, or studied the relationships between music and L2 learning/acquisition. The focus of the research was to determine the correlation between music and L2 learning/acquisition and explore effective ways of applying music to facilitating the process of L2 learning/acquisition. Methods: Literature review. Results and conclusion: For RQ1, most of the studies reported that music is positively correlated with learners’ L2 learning/acquisition/development/gains although some of them delivered the conclusion without solid statistical evidence. For RQ2, it can be concluded that the use of music in L2 learning yields benefits in at least 6 facets: (1) Promoting L2 learning via providing extra cognitive value; (2) Enhancing learners’ L2 knowledge; (3) Improving learners’ language skills; (4) Delivering and strengthening L2 culture; (5) Facilitating L2 teaching via using music as a component of a compound L2 pedagogical method; (6) Altering the plasticity of brain functions and networks responsible for L2 processing. Finally, controversies and implications were also discussed to provide guidance for the effective application of music in L2 learning.

Is ChatGPT an evil or an angel for second language education and research? A phenomenographic study of research‐active EFL teachers’ perceptions

AbstractArtificial intelligence (AI) is influencing different aspects of human life. An AI‐powered technology, which has been recently released, is ChatGPT. It is a cutting‐edge technology that influences second/foreign language (L2) education. Although there is increasing research on the benefits and misfits of this chatbot in different disciplines, L2 education lacks a thorough investigation. To fill this lacuna, this phenomenographic study examined the perceptions of research‐active English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers regarding the potentials and pitfalls of ChatGPT for L2 learning, teaching, assessment, and research. To this end, a semistructured interview was held with 30 Iranian EFL teachers with varying educational backgrounds and AI integration experiences. The results of content and thematic analysis indicated that ChatGPT is a double‐edged sword that can both benefit and hurt these areas of L2 education. The most notable potentials were augmenting learner autonomy, providing personalized learning, reducing teachers’ teaching workload, designing assessment rubrics, and summarizing lengthy papers and theses to save L2 researchers’ time and energy. Concerning pitfalls, it was reported that ChatGPT might kill creativity and academic integrity, encourage cheating in online exams, spread fake and misinformation into the world of research, and cherish high‐tech plagiarism. Some practical suggestions are made to empower L2 educators and researchers to survive in the world of AI.

Statistical Insignificance is not wholesale transfer in L3 Acquisition: an approximate replication of Rothman (2011)

Abstract This study was an approximate replication of Rothman (2011),examining the determiner phrase syntax of a large sample (n = 211) of L3 learners of Portuguese who spoke English and Spanish. Rothman (2011) investigated whether L3 Italian or Brazilian Portuguese speakers are differently impacted by another known Romance Language, if it was their L1 or L2. The original study concluded that groups did not perform differently on experimental tasks on the basis of a null effect, and that the typological similarity of Spanish, Portuguese, or Italian predicts transfer in the initial stages of L3 acquisition. The present replication recreated all materials, which were unavailable, and examined the same population and questions. However, rather than examining L3 Italian and L3 Brazilian Portuguese, the present work maintained a constant L3 Portuguese. Learners were divided into two groups in a mirror-image design (n = 96 L1 English-L2 Spanish, n = 115 L1 Spanish-L2 English), and data were collected online. Like the original study, there was no main effect of group in any of the two-way analyses of variance. However, results show that it should not be assumed that experimental groups behave equivalently based on a null effect: Of the four total post hoc tests of equivalence, only two were significant when the equivalence bounds were set at a small effect size (d = $ \pm $ .4). Ultimately, it is argued that determining the smallest effect size of interest and subsequent equivalence testing are necessary to answer key questions in the field of L3 acquisition.

Dissecting subjective L2 (un)willingness to communicate among EFL learners: a Q methodology study

ABSTRACT This study used Q methodology to explore the subjective perspectives of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners regarding sources of willingness to communicate (WTC). A sample of 40 undergraduate students enrolled in an English language teaching program at a Turkish university was obtained. Based on their shared viewpoints, the participants were clustered into three groups: self-assured communicators, motivated communicators, and nervous communicators. Self-assured communicators exhibited high levels of self-confidence, while motivated communicators displayed strong and unwavering motivation to improve their speaking skills. Nervous communicators, on the other hand, showed noticeable signs of anxiety, impeding their WTC. This study provides evidence that an amalgamation of internal and external factors works in synergy to shape EFL learners’ WTC in the classroom. Recognising this interplay can lead to the development of targeted interventions and instructional approaches, improving L2 learners’ communicative behaviours. Understanding and addressing learners’ subjective experiences, particularly in relation to self-confidence, motivation, and anxiety, are key elements in enhancing their WTC and overall language proficiency.

Strategia Retrieval practice w nauczaniu języków obcych seniorów

Introduction: At the beginning of the 21st century, older adults have become another group with special educational needs, not only because of their social and neuropsychological conditions, but also because of the growing number of people aged 60+. One of the fields that responds to those needs is foreign language geragogy. Research Aim: The aim of the paper is to draw attention to retrieval practice (RP) strategy as an applicable method in teaching languages to older adults for maintaining their cognitive skills and to suggest some concrete solutions of the RP implementation in the language education. Method: This study is of a theoretical-conceptual nature. The literature review was conducted in the fields of neurological and psychological characteristics of third-agers, as well as with reference to RP experiences in teaching children and teenagers. Own two-stages research focused on lecturers’ perspective explored through online surveys and a group interview. Results: The RP strategy is an educational need reported by late L2 learners and their teachers. Due to its proven neurocognitive support of people aged 60+, the strategy is a valuable method of working with older adults. Results have allowed for proposing an applicable aspect. A few RP language practice models were offered as a tool facilitating learning, which is a novelty as for many years it was behind the interests of researchers and practitioners working with thirdagers. Conclusion: The RP strategy is a technique worthy of attention because of the goals accompanying language learning in older age, such as cognitive development, supporting memory processes and maintaining social contacts. The use of RP strategies in language exercises allows to diversify the process of language education in a way that is adequate to the late L2 learners’ potential. All of these factors are undoubtedly crucial in the context of seniors’ well-being. This allows us to conclude that the benefits of language learning can have a holistic dimension for older adults, as long as the learning is carried out using appropriate methods.

An Ecological Perspective on Agency: L2 Learners’ Sociopragmatic Interpretations and Strategies in a Study Abroad Context

In applied linguistics, there has been a growing body of L2 pragmatics studies that investigate the intricate relationship between language learners’ subjective pragmatic choices and various contextual factors. The current study contributes to the understanding of language learner agency by illustrating the complex processes through which language learners enact their agency in response to varying contextual factors when making their sociopragmatic interpretations and strategies. To capture the ecological nature of agency, this study conceptualizes agency as contextually, interpersonally, intrapersonally, spatially, and temporally embedded. Through the in-depth examination of the accounts of three L2 learners of Japanese regarding their interactions with religious group members during their study abroad in Japan, this study demonstrates language learners’ divergent ways of enacting their agency, stemming from their orientations to the unique configurations of various contextual attributes in the L2 interactions. Such differences were rooted in and guided by their past experiences, present environments, and future aspirations that impacted their sociopragmatic perceptions, expectations, and choices. This study provides a complicated picture of language learner agency as a dialogic and reflexive process in which learners interact with contextual factors and adapt their sociopragmatic choices. Thus, it calls for an ecological, processual, and holistic approach to language learner agency through the close examination of the ways in which various contextual factors come together in L2 interactions, the process of how language learners orient to dynamic configurations of contextual factors, and what guides such orientations.

Exploring the Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI-based) English Games in Enhancing English Communication Skills among Indonesian L2 Generation Z

The role of artificial intelligence (AI-based) English games in enhancing English communication skills among Indonesian Generation Z (Gen-Z) for whom English is a second language (L2), is the main focus of this study. Questionnaires to collect data consisted of both open and closed-ended questions. Seventy-eight Indonesian Gen- Z from different parts of Indonesia participated, and provides a strong representation of the country. This study is aimed to address a gap in the present literature by directly engaging with game players and examining their perspectives and experiences with actual games that they play for enjoyment rather than games designed for educational purposes. The study’s findings show that English AI-based games significantly help respondents develop their vocabulary, improve comprehension, and acquire confidence in English speaking. The findings also indicate that English AI-based game learning is favoured over traditional methods. The respondents noted gaming's immersive and interactive aspect as beneficial to language acquisition and skill development. These findings emphasise the transformative potential of English AI-based games in language learning and advocate for their integration into educational frameworks to better fulfil the needs of L2 learners, particularly Gen-Z.

Seeing to understand better? The interplay between cognitive traits and nonverbal visual cues in L2 video comprehension

This study delves into the relationship between the cognitive traits of L2 learners and nonverbal visual scaffolds, specifically beat gestures and facial articulatory features, embedded in training materials. These scaffolds have been proven to enhance L1 comprehension. The research further investigates how this relationship impacts the effects of these scaffolds on learners' comprehension performance post-training. For this purpose, the study recruited 120 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners aged 20–24, all at the B2 level of English proficiency, for a 4-week hybrid instructional period. The findings suggest that working memory (WM) plays a significant role in L2 learners' processing of nonverbal visual cues. High-WM learners showed improved comprehension with facial cues, while low-WM individuals leaned towards treatments with fewer nonverbal cues. Additionally, learners’ modality preferences were pivotal for their comprehension. Auditory verbalizers—those who prefer spoken texts—favored treatments emphasizing auditory elements. In contrast, textual verbalizers—those inclined towards written texts and with high working memory—benefited more from exposure to rich nonverbal cues. This study highlights the importance of a balanced instructional strategy that integrates both verbal and nonverbal cues, tailored specifically for learners with distinct cognitive traits and preferences.