Animal Learning Research Articles

Are we smart enough to remember how smart animals are?

Some theoretical perspectives suggest people overestimate animals' mental capacities (anthropomorphism), while others suggest the reverse (mind-denial). However, studies have generally not employed objective criteria against which the accuracy or appropriateness of people's judgments about animals can be tested. We employed memory paradigms, in which judgments are clearly right or wrong, in nine experiments (eight preregistered; n = 3,162). When tested shortly after exposure, meat-eaters' memory about companion animals (e.g., dogs) but not food animals (e.g., pigs) showed an anthropomorphic bias: they remembered more information consistent with animals having versus lacking a mind (Experiments 1-4). Vegetarians' and vegans' memory, on the other hand, consistently showed an anthropomorphic bias regarding food and companion animals alike (Experiments 5 and 6). When tested a week after exposure, both those who eat meat and those who do not showed signs of shifting toward a mind-denying bias (Experiments 2, 3, and 6). These biases had important consequences for beliefs about animal minds. Inducing mind-denying memory biases caused participants to see animals as possessing less sophisticated minds (Experiments 7-9). The work demonstrates that memories concerning animals' minds can depart predictably from reality and that such departures can contribute to biased evaluations of their mental capacities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The GABA system, a new target for medications against cognitive impairment-Associated with neuroactive steroids.

The prevalence of cognitive dysfunction, dementia, and neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) is increasing in parallel with an aging population. Distinct types of chronic stress are thought to be instrumental in the development of cognitive impairment in central nervous system (CNS) disorders where cognitive impairment is a major unmet medical need. Increased GABAergic tone is a mediator of stress effects but is also a result of other factors in CNS disorders. Positive GABA-A receptor modulating stress and sex steroids (steroid-PAMs) such as allopregnanolone (ALLO) and medroxyprogesterone acetate can provoke impaired cognition. As such, ALLO impairs memory and learning in both animals and humans. In transgenic AD animal studies, continuous exposure to ALLO at physiological levels impairs cognition and increases degenerative AD pathology, whereas intermittent ALLO injections enhance cognition, indicating pleiotropic functions of ALLO. We have shown that GABA-A receptor modulating steroid antagonists (GAMSAs) can block the acute negative cognitive impairment of ALLO on memory in animal studies and in patients with cognitive impairment due to hepatic encephalopathy. Here we describe disorders affected by steroid-PAMs and opportunities to treat these adverse effects of steroid-PAMs with novel GAMSAs.

Effects of S-Adenosylmethionine on Cognition in Animals and Humans: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

There is increasing evidence that supplementation of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) can improve cognitive function in animals and humans, although the outcomes are not always inconsistent. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the correlation between SAM supplementation and improved cognitive function. We searched studies in the PubMed, Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science, and Clinical Trials databases from January 1, 2002 to January 1, 2022. Risk of bias was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias 2.0 (human studies) and the Systematic Review Center for Laboratory Animal Experimentation risk of bias (animal studies) tools; and evidence quality was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. STATA software was employed to perform meta-analysis, and the random-effects models was used to evaluate the standardized mean difference with 95% confidence intervals. Out of the 2,375 studies screened, 30 studies met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analyses of animal (p = 0.213) and human (p = 0.047) studies showed that there were no significant differences between the SAM supplementation and control groups. The results of the subgroup analyses showed that the animals aged ≤8 weeks (p = 0.027) and the intervention duration >8 weeks (p = 0.009) were significantly different compared to the controls. Additionally, the Morris water maze test (p = 0.005) used to assess the cognitive level of the animals revealed that SAM could enhance spatial learning and memory in animals. SAM supplementation showed no significant improvement in cognition. Therefore, further studies are needed to assess the effectiveness of SAM supplementation.

A New Definition of Ethical Mentophobia

Abstract It has become difficult to deny animal consciousness. However, we have nonepistemic reasons for denying it that are related to our interests. In particular, research has shown that we reject animal consciousness to morally preserve our meat consumption. It is therefore possible that mentophobia is expressed in ways other than the denial of the nonhuman animal mind. We revisit the concept of mentophobia to show that it includes at least one other way of belittling other animals by attacking their mental abilities or traits, namely, through denigration. We thus distinguish denial-mentophobia and denigration-mentophobia, paving the way for empirical research that may be useful in debates on the moral or political status of nonhuman animals. This distinction also has important consequences for the concept of mentophobia regarding the concept of dementalization in that it increases their nonredundancy.

Nomen est omen: Serial reaction time task is not a motor but a visuomotor learning task.

The serial reaction time task is a widely used task in behavioural and cognitive neuroscience to assess human and animal learning. Many publications refer to this task as a 'motor learning task', but it is also a perceptual learning task. We emphasize here that the incorrect use of the term 'motor learning' misleads researchers and medical doctors by emphasizing the motor cortex's exclusive role. It has the potential to lead to the misinterpretation of neuroscientific, neuroimaging and clinical studies. The domino effect has the potential to generate more flawed hypotheses and theories.

Intensive exercise ameliorates motor and cognitive symptoms in experimental Parkinson's disease restoring striatal synaptic plasticity.

Intensive physical activity improves motor functions in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) at early stages. However, the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of exercise on PD-associated neuronal alterations have not been fully clarified yet. Here, we tested the hypothesis that an intensive treadmill training program rescues alterations in striatal plasticity and early motor and cognitive deficits in rats receiving an intrastriatal injection of alpha-synuclein (α-syn) preformed fibrils. Improved motor control and visuospatial learning in active animals were associated with a recovery of dendritic spine density alterations and a lasting rescue of a physiological corticostriatal long-term potentiation (LTP). Pharmacological analyses of LTP show that modulations of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors bearing GluN2B subunits and tropomyosin receptor kinase B, the main brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor, are involved in these beneficial effects. We demonstrate that intensive exercise training has effects on the early plastic alterations induced by α-syn aggregates and reduces the spread of toxic α-syn species to other vulnerable brain areas.

Light at night: effect on the daily clock, learning, memory, cognition, and expression of transcripts in different brain regions of rat.

The rapid increase in urbanization is altering the natural composition of the day-night light ratio. The light/dark cycle regulates animal learning, memory, and mood swings. A study was conducted to examine the effect of different quantity and quality of light at night on the daily clock, learning, memory, cognition, and expression of transcripts in key learning centers. Treatment was similar for experiments one to three. Rats were exposed for 30days to 12h light and 12h dark with a night light of 2lx (dLAN group), 250lx (LL), or without night light (LD). In experiment one, after 28days, blood samples were collected and 2days later, animals were exposed to constant darkness. In experiment two, after 30days of treatment, animals were subjected to various tests involving learning, memory, and cognition. In experiment three, after 30days of treatment, animals were sampled, and transcript levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, tyrosine kinase, Growth-Associated Protein 43, Neurogranin, microRNA-132, cAMP Response Element-Binding Protein, Glycogen synthase kinase-3β, and Tumor necrosis factor α were measured in hippocampus, thalamus, and cortex tissues. In experiment four, animals were exposed to night light of 0.019W/m2 but of either red (640nm), green (540nm), or blue (450nm) wavelength for 30days, and similar tests were performed as mentioned in experiment 2. While in experiment five, after 30days of respective wavelength treatments, all animals were sampled for gene expression studies. Our results show that exposure to dLAN and LL affects the daily clock as reflected by altered melatonin secretion and locomotor activity, compromises the learning, memory, and cognitive ability, and alterations in the expression levels of transcripts in the hypothalamus, cortex, and thalamus. The effect is night light intensity dependent. Further, blue light at night has less drastic effects than green and red light. These results could be of the potential use of framing the policies for the use of light at night.

Artificial night illumination disrupts sleep, and attenuates mood and learning in diurnal animals: evidence from behavior and gene expression studies in zebra finches.

This study investigated the effects of an illuminated night on sleep, mood, and cognitive performance in non-seasonal diurnal zebra finches that were exposed for 6weeks to an ecologically relevant dimly lit night (12L:12dLAN; 150lx: 5lx) with controls on the dark night (12L:12D; 150lx: < 0.01lx). Food and water were provided ad libitum. Under dLAN (dim light at night), birds showed disrupted nocturnal (frequent awakenings) and overall decreased sleep duration. They also exhibited a compromised novel object exploration, a marker of the bird's mood state, and committed more errors, took significantly longer duration to learn with low retrieval performance of the learned task when tested for a color-discrimination (learning) task under the dLAN. Further, compared to controls, there was reduced mRNA expression level of genes involved in the neurogenesis, neural plasticity (bdnf, dcx and egr1) and motivation (th, drd2, taar1 and htr2c; dopamine synthesis and signaling genes) in the brain (hippocampus (HP), nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL), and midbrain) of birds under dLAN. These results show concurrent negative behavioral and molecular neural effects of the dimly illuminated nights, and provide insights into the possible impact on sleep and mental health in diurnal species inhabiting an increasingly urbanized ecosystem.

In Memoriam: Peter J. Urcuioli (1952-2022).

In Memoriam: Peter J. Urcuioli (1952-2022).

Pengaruh Media Audio Visual terhadap Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas IV pada Pembelajaran Subtema Hewan dan Tumbuhan di Lingkungan Rumahku di SD Negeri 091496 Tanah Jawa

The purpose of this study was to find out whether the audio-visual learning media had an effect on the learning outcomes of fourth grade students in the animal and plant sub-theme learning in my home environment at SD Negeri 091496 Tanah Jawa or not. There are 2 hypotheses in this study, namely, (1) there is an effect of the use of visual media on the learning outcomes of class IV students of SD Negeri 091496 Tanah Jawa (H) and (2) there is no effect of using visual media on learning outcomes of class IV students of SD Negeri 091496 Tanah Java (Ho). This research method is an experimental method with the type of Pre-Experimental Design research using the "One Group Pretest Posttest Design" design. The population of this study was all fourth grade students at SD Negeri 091496 Tanah Jawa, totaling 30 people. Data collection was carried out by giving tests and observation techniques. then the sum of the experimental class pretest scores was obtained with an average value of 46.3. Posttest experimental class with an average value of 84.6. So it can be interpreted that there is an influence of visual media on the learning outcomes of class V students in the learning sub-theme of the importance of clean air for breathing at SD Negeri 091496 Tanah Jawa. This means that Ha is accepted and Ho is rejected.

Perception of Animal Mind in the Relationship Between Morality and Violence Against Animals: Moral Status Versus Anthropomorphization

ABSTRACT In our study, we examined how people behave when intuitive, innate morality provides contradictory solutions regarding acceptance of instrumental violence against animals. We investigated two mechanisms of mediation between moral intuitions and acceptance of instrumental violence against animals: one was perception of the experience dimension of animal mind, which enables people to establish animals’ moral patient status and rights, and the other was perception of the agency dimension, the basis for anthropomorphization. To examine these topics, we conducted quasi-experimental (n = 533, 50% women) and correlational (n = 532, 91% women) studies. Participants completed on-line questionnaires measuring intuitive morality according to Moral Foundations Theory, acceptance of instrumental violence against animals, and perception of the experience and agency dimensions of animal mind. Regression and correlation analyses confirmed a contradiction in participants’ moral foundations: individualizing foundations correlated negatively with acceptance of instrumental violence, whereas binding foundations correlated positively. Moreover, the moral foundations of Authority and Care were the main predictors. Mediation analysis with both dimensions of animal mind as mediators revealed that only perception of the experience dimension plays a mediatory role between moral foundations and acceptance of instrumental violence against animals. Thus, we interpret that when people have opposing moral intuitions, they regulate this contradiction only by establishing moral patient status via perception of the experience dimension of animal mind, not by anthropomorphization via perception of the agency dimension. This, in turn, facilitates people’s acceptance of or disagreement with instrumental violence against animals. We argue that people do so to avoid moral ambivalence or dissonance, fear of moral judgment by others, or deterioration of social relationships. These findings add to our knowledge about the different functions of the perception of the experience and agency dimensions of animal mind.

ID: 206628 Neuromodulatory Effects of Medial Septum Theta-Stimulation on Hippocampal Neurons and Laminar Oscillations

Learning and memory requires coordinated communication within and between brain regions. These precise communications can manifest as oscillations in the local field potentials including theta and gamma frequencies. Disruption of these communications (e.g., traumatic brain injury) in the networks of the brain interfere with appropriate cognitive function. The adverse effects of such disruptions may be resolved using neuromodulation techniques that reinstate synchrony of brain oscillations essential for cognitive function. Prior studies have demonstrated that theta stimulation can improve spatial learning in injured animals. However, the effects of this stimulation on the neurons of the hippocampus or their local oscillations are unknown.

0073 Investigating the epigenetic mechanisms underlying memory consolidation during sleep

Abstract Introduction It has been established that sleep after learning something (“post-learning sleep”) actively consolidates what was learned. Yet, the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms are undergoing active investigation. The fear conditioning (FC) memory paradigm, in which an animal learns to associate an environmental cue to an aversive foot shock, has been widely used for memory investigation. While amygdala and hippocampus are two critical sites for processing and storing the FC memory, how the amygdala consolidate this memory during sleep, from both cellular and molecular perspectives, has been little understood, compared to the hippocampus. Moreover, one potential molecular substrate of memory, DNA methylation, has been studied in the hippocampus for its role in learning and memory. Yet it is little known for its memory role in the BLA. Methods Here, we used fiber photometry, miniscope calcium imaging, EEG recording, optogenetic manipulation, and whole genome bisulfite sequencing to study the neural mechanisms underlying memory consolidation in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) during sleep. Results (1) We found that the BLA neurons display increased activity during REM sleep, compared to that in non-REM (NREM) sleep. (2) Using closed-loop optogenetic strategy, our preliminary results showed that silencing BLA activity during REM sleep leads to memory impairment in contextual fear conditioning task. (3) We compared DNA methylation of BLA neurons at a whole genome level between mice with and without sleep after FC learning and identified differentially methylated regions between them. Conclusion Together, our data suggests that the BLA activity during REM sleep is required for consolidation of fear memory, and DNA methylation might mediate this process. Support (if any)

Fighting human hubris: Intelligence in nonhuman animals and artefacts

Abstract100 years ago, the editors of theJournal of Educational Psychologyconducted one of the most famous studies of experts’ conceptions of human intelligence. This was reason enough to prompt the question where we stand today with making sense of “intelligence”. In this paper, we argue that we should overcome our anthropocentrism and appreciate the wonders of intelligence in nonhuman and nonbiological animals instead. For that reason, we study two cases of octopus intelligence and intelligence in machine learning systems to embrace the notion of intelligence as a non-unitary faculty with pluralistic forms. Furthermore, we derive lessons for advancing our human self-understanding.

Functional Imaging of Learning-Induced Plasticity in the Central Nervous System with Genetically Encoded Reporters in Drosophila.

Learning and memory allow animals to adjust their behavior based on the predictive value of their past experiences. Memories often exist in complex representations, spread across numerous cells and synapses in the brain. Studying relatively simple forms of memory provides insights into the fundamental processes that underlie multiple forms of memory. Associative learning occurs when an animal learns the relationship between two previously unrelated sensory stimuli, such as when a hungry animal learns that a particular odor is followed by a tasty reward. Drosophila is a particularly powerful model to study how this type of memory works. The fundamental principles are widely shared among animals, and there is a wide range of genetic tools available to study circuit function in flies. In addition, the olfactory structures that mediate associative learning in flies, such as the mushroom body and its associated neurons, are anatomically organized, relatively well-characterized, and readily accessible to imaging. Here, we review the olfactory anatomy and physiology of the olfactory system, describe how plasticity in the olfactory pathway mediates learning and memory, and explain the general principles underlying calcium imaging approaches.

Periaqueductal gray matter and medial prefrontal cortex reflect negative prediction errors during differential conditioning.

Computational models of associative learning posit that negative prediction errors (PEs) arising from the omission of aversive outcomes weaken aversive Pavlovian associations during differential conditioning and extinction. It is possible that negative PEs may underlie exaggerated conditioned responses to the conditioned stimulus not paired with an aversitve outcome (CS-) during differential conditioning and to the conditioned stimulus originally paired with a aversive outcome (CS+) during extinction in patients with clinical anxiety disorders. Although previous research has demonstrated that manipulations of the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) interfere with extinction learning in animals, the role of the PAG in processing negative PEs within the human brain is presently unclear. We set out to investigate how PAG responses and connectivity are impacted by negative PEs using ultra-high-field (7 T) functional magnetic resonance imaging and hierarchical Bayesian analysis. During differential conditioning, negative PEs were associated with larger responses within the lateral and dorsolateral PAG and increased connectivity between the dorsolateral PAG and medial areas of Brodmann area 9. Collectively, these results shed light on the association between activity within the PAG and medial prefrontal cortex and the omission of aversive outcomes during Pavlovian learning.

Intranasal in situ gelling liquid crystal for delivery of resveratrol ameliorates memory and neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an illness that affects people aged 65 or older and affects around 6.5 million in the United States. Resveratrol is a chemical obtained from natural products and it exhibits biological activity based on inhibiting the formation, depolymerization of the amyloid, and decreasing neuroinflammation. Due to the insolubility of this compound; its incorporation in surfactant-based systems was proposed to design an intranasal formulation. A range of systems has been produced by mixing oleic acid, CETETH-20 and water. Polarised light microscopy (PLM), small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirm the initial liquid formulation (F) presented as microemulsion (ME). After dilution, the gelled systems were characterized as hexagonal mesophase and they showed feasibility proprieties. Pharmacological assays performed after intranasal administration showed the ability to improve learning and memory in animals, as well as remission of neuroinflammation via inhibition of interleukin.

From helplessness to controllability: toward a neuroscience of resilience.

"Learned helplessness" refers to debilitating outcomes, such as passivity and increased fear, that follow an uncontrollable adverse event, but do not when that event is controllable. The original explanation argued that when events are uncontrollable the animal learns that outcomes are independent of its behavior, and that this is the active ingredient in producing the effects. Controllable adverse events, in contrast, fail to produce these outcomes because they lack the active uncontrollability element. Recent work on the neural basis of helplessness, however, takes the opposite view. Prolonged exposure to aversive stimulation per se produces the debilitation by potent activation of serotonergic neurons in the brainstem dorsal raphe nucleus. Debilitation is prevented with an instrumental controlling response, which activates prefrontal circuitry detecting control and subsequently blunting the dorsal raphe nucleus response. Furthermore, learning control alters the prefrontal response to future adverse events, thereby preventing debilitation and producing long-term resiliency. The general implications of these neuroscience findings may apply to psychological therapy and prevention, in particular by suggesting the importance of cognitions and control, rather than habits of control.

Notes from the archives: Margaret Floy Washburn and her cats.

Margaret Floy Washburn was one of the leading psychologists of her generation, whose most important work was The Animal Mind (Goodman, 1980). As E. G. Boring noted, that text "reflected her own love of animals and her intense interest in their behavior" (1971, p. 547). What about the role of animals in Washburn's personal life? (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring the limits to our understanding of whether fish feel pain.

Exploring the limits to our understanding of whether fish feel pain.