Learning Research Articles

Adult Neurogenesis Is Key to Verbal Learning in People With Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy, Study Finds

Adult Neurogenesis Is Key to Verbal Learning in People With Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy, Study Finds

Social context affects sequence modification learning in birdsong

Social interactions are crucial for imitative vocal learning such as human speech learning or song learning in songbirds. Recently, introducing specific learned modifications into adult song by experimenter-controlled reinforcement learning has emerged as a key protocol to study aspects of vocal learning in songbirds. This form of adult plasticity does not require conspecifics as a model for imitation or to provide social feedback on song performance. We therefore hypothesized that social interactions are irrelevant to, or even inhibit, song modification learning. We tested whether social context affects song sequence learning in adult male Bengalese finches (Lonchura striata domestica). We targeted specific syllable sequences in adult birds’ songs with negative auditory feedback, which led the birds to reduce the targeted syllable sequence in favor of alternate sequences. Changes were apparent in catch trials without feedback, indicating a learning process. Each experiment was repeated within subjects with three different social contexts (male–male, MM; male–female, MF; and male alone, MA) in randomized order. We found robust learning in all three social contexts, with a nonsignificant trend toward facilitated learning with social company (MF, MM) compared to the single-housed (MA) condition. This effect could not be explained by the order of social contexts, nor by different singing rates across contexts. Our results demonstrate that social context can influence degree of learning in adult birds even in experimenter-controlled reinforcement learning tasks, and therefore suggest that social interactions might facilitate song plasticity beyond their known role for imitation and social feedback.

Effects of cognitive stimulation group programs in patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease

Objectives: This study examined the effects of a cognitive stimulation group program on cognitive functions, depression, activities of daily living (ADL), and quality of life in patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Methods: Sixty patients with mild AD were randomized into the experimental or control groups (30 in each). Both groups underwent conventional occupational therapy for 30 minutes, followed by a 50-minute session of a cognitive stimulation group program for the experimental group and a cognitive workbook group program for the control group. Interventions for both groups were carried out for 4 weeks, five times a week, and once a day. Results: After the interventions, both groups showed significant differences in cognitive functions, depression, ADL, and quality of life ( p < 0.01, p < 0.001), with the experimental group demonstrating slightly higher scores in all assessment items. Significant intergroup differences were found in the scores for memory, the shortened Korean version of the Boston Naming Test, the Elderly Seoul Verbal Learning Test, the Korean version of the Trail Making Test Part A (depression), the Korean version of the Instrumental ADL scale, and quality of life ( p < 0.05, p < 0.01, p < 0.001). Conclusion: It has been shown that the cognitive simulation group program can be an effective intervention method to reduce the depression of mild AD patients and improve cognitive function, ADL, and quality of life. In addition, it is significant that various enjoyable activities were organized for each cognitive domain to induce active participation and motivation of the subjects. It is expected that this study can be usefully used as a guideline for the treatment of AD patients in the future.

Applying the Kessler Foundation modified Story Memory Technique (KF-mSMT ®) to Improve New Learning in Aging Populations

Introduction: The current study examines the efficacy of the 10-session Kessler Foundation modified Story Memory Technique (KF-mSMT®) to improve new learning in older adults. Methods. This double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial included twenty-eight individuals over age 65 randomized to the treatment group (n=17) or placebo control group (n=13). Participants completed a baseline neuropsychological assessment, including questionnaires assessing everyday memory, and a repeat assessment immediately post-treatment. The primary outcome measure was the total learning score from the California Verbal Learning Test II (CVLT II) and the secondary outcome measure was total score from the Memory Functioning Questionnaire. Results: A significant effect of the KF-mSMT® was noted on the CVLT-II total learning score in the treatment group, demonstrating a large effect size. Post-hoc analysis examining benefit from the KF-mSMT in the healthy aging group as compared with the MCI group showed a trend toward significance (p=.069), with a large effect size. With benefit defined as a 10% or greater improvement on the CVLT total learning, 65% of patients in the treatment group showed improvement from baseline to immediate follow-up, compared with 31% of the control group (p=.06). Significant treatment effects were also noted on a self-report measure of memory in daily life, the Memory Functioning Questionnaire. Post-treatment changes in depression or anxiety from before to after treatment were not significant between the groups. Conclusion: The current study presents preliminary evidence in support of the KF-mSMT® for improving learning and memory abilities in older populations of those aging normally and those meeting criteria for MCI.

What happens after menopause? (WHAM): A prospective controlled study of cognition 24months after premenopausal risk-reducing salpingo-oophorectomy.

Women with BRCA1/2 pathogenic variants considering risk-reducing bilateral oophorectomy (RRSO) may be concerned about potential effects of surgical menopause on cognition. Whether RRSO affects cognition and whether hormone therapy (HT) modifies this effect remains uncertain. This study aimed to prospectively measure the effect of premenopausal RRSO on cognition and the modifying effects of HT up to 24months. The design was a prospective, multisite (4 sites in Australia), 24-month observational study. Participants were premenopausal BRCA1/2 carriers (n=83) planning RRSO referred from gynecology-oncology and familial cancer centers and a premenopausal comparison group (n=98) not planning oophorectomy or pregnancy who self-referred. Baseline data were collected within 8weeks of eligibility screening, and RRSO was scheduled between baseline and 3months. Of 687 screened, 181 were analysed. Cognitive performance (verbal learning and memory, psychomotor speed, fluency) was assessed at baseline, 3, 12 and 24months with the a priori outcomes of verbal learning and memory. After RRSO, 65% initiated HT. In multivariable models of group differences in cognitive performance over time, RRSO and comparison groups showed similar performance improvements except for verbal learning. The RRSO group showed a small, statistically significant lower improvement in verbal learning vs comparisons, after adjustment for HT and other factors (p=0.03). After RRSO, verbal learning was higher in HT users vs non-users (p=0.04). Over 24months RRSO minimally impacted cognition except for a small adverse effect on verbal learning, partly offset by HT. Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (anzctr.org.au); Identifier #: ACTRN12615000082505; URL: https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=363554&isReview=true.

BDNF expression mediates verbal learning and memory in women in a cohort enriched with risk for Alzheimer's disease.

This study examined whether sex differences in verbal learning and memory (VLM) are mediated by plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. In a sample of n=201 participants (63.81±6.04 years, 66.2% female, 65.7% family history of Alzheimer's disease [AD], 38% apolipoprotein E [APOE] ε4+) from the Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention, VLM was measured using trials 3 through 5 and delayed recall from the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test. Plasma BDNF was measured using a Human BDNF Quantikine Immunoassay. Mediation analysis used bootstrapping, and stratified mediation models tested the conditional dependence of APOE ε4 carriage. BDNF partially mediated the sex-VLM relationship (β=-0.07; 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.18, -0.01). Female APOE ε4 carriers had higher VLM scores (β=-0.53; p=0.03), while female non-carriers had both higher BDNF levels (β=-0.68; p<0.01) and VLM scores (β=-1.06; p<0.01); BDNF was again a significant mediator (β=-0.18; 95% CI: -0.37, -0.05). This study found that circulating BDNF mediates higher verbal memory scores in females-particularly in APOE ε4 non-carriers. Sex differences in verbal learning and memory (VLM) were mediated by plasma brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels.Women exhibited higher VLM scores and plasma BDNF levels compared to men.The protective effect of BDNF in women was attenuated by apolipoprotein E ε4 carriage.Findings suggest sex-specific mechanisms against verbal memory decline in aging.

Smoking Abstinence Disrupts Acquisition but Does Not Impair Probabilistic Reversal Learning in Humans

Smoking Abstinence Disrupts Acquisition but Does Not Impair Probabilistic Reversal Learning in Humans

Insulin resistance links dysbiosis of gut microbiota with cognitive impairment in first-episode drug-naïve schizophrenia.

This study aimed to explore the relationship among gut microbiota imbalance, the homeostasis model of assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia (SCZ). We conducted a case-control study involving 189 first-episode, drug-naïve SCZ patients and 115 healthy controls (HCs). Main methods adopted included metagenomics analysis, glucose metabolism assessment, and cognitive function evaluation using the MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB). Fecal microbiota composition was analyzed via high-throughput sequencing of 16S ribosomal RNA. Patients with SCZ showed a higher likelihood of developing IR (23 %), compared to HCs (12 %). The IR group exhibited significantly higher levels of fasting blood glucose (FBG), fasting insulin (FINS), HOMA-IR, and homeostasis model assessment-β (HOMA-β), while showing lower insulin sensitivity index (ISI) levels (all p < 0.05). Patients with IR demonstrated lower scores in working memories (WM), verbal learning (HVLT) and reasoning and problem solving (RPS), compared to those without IR. Additionally, microbiota analysis revealed that IR patients had higher abundance of Negativicutes, Streptococcaceae, Enterobacteriaceae, Lachnoclostridium, Dialister, Klebsiella, and Enterobacter, and lower abundance of Flavonifractor and Rikenellaceae. Notably, Negativicutes, Streptococcaceae, Lachnoclostridium, Flavonifractor, and Rikenellaceae were shared between SCZ and IR conditions. Mediation analysis indicated that the relative abundance of Streptococcaceae have an indirect effect on WM through HOMA-IR (β=-0.148, SE=0.067, 95 %CI=-0.280 to -0.020). The study suggests that IR may play a mediating role in the relationship between gut microbiota dysbiosis and cognitive impairments in patients with SCZ, which could point to potential new avenues for therapeutic interventions.

Music as a contextual cue in human predictive learning

Music as a contextual cue in human predictive learning

15-Month-Olds' Understanding of Imitation in Social and Instrumental Contexts.

From early in development, humans use imitation to express social engagement, to understand social affiliations, and to learn from others. Nevertheless, the social and instrumental goals that drive imitation in everyday and pedagogical contexts are highly intertwined. What cues might infants use to infer that a social goal is driving imitation? Here we use minimal and tightly controlled visual displays to evaluate 15-month-olds' attribution of social goals to imitation. In particular, we ask whether they see the very same simple, imitative actions shared between two agents as social or nonsocial when those actions occur in the absence or presence of intentional cues such as obstacles, object goals, and efficient, causally effective action. Our results suggest that infants' attributing social value to imitation only in the absence of such intentional cues may be a signature of humans' early understanding of imitation. We propose, moreover, that a systematic evaluation of a set of simple scenarios that probe candidate principles of early knowledge about social and instrumental actions and goals is possible and promises to inform our understanding of the foundational knowledge on which human social learning is built, as well as to aid the building of human-like artificial intelligence.

Online Human Behavior Learning via Dynamic Regressor Extension and Mixing With Fixed-Time Convergence

Online Human Behavior Learning via Dynamic Regressor Extension and Mixing With Fixed-Time Convergence

High definition transcranial direct current stimulation as an intervention for cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's dementia: A randomized controlled trial.

Recent disease-modifying treatments for Alzheimer's disease show promise to slow cognitive decline, but show no efficacy towards reducing symptoms already manifested. To investigate the efficacy of a novel noninvasive brain stimulation technique in modulating cognitive functioning in Alzheimer's dementia (AD). Pilot, randomized, double-blind, parallel, sham-controlled study SETTING: Clinical research site at UT Southwestern Medical Center PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-five participants with clinical diagnoses of AD were enrolled from cognition specialty clinics. Treatment consisted of high definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) delivered for 20 min over the medial prefrontal cortex. Ten sessions of sham, 1 mA, or 2 mA stimulation were received. Cognitive outcomes were measured at baseline, after the last HD-tDCS session, and 8-weeks post-treatment. The primary outcome was change in total learning and delayed recall on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) immediately post-treatment and at 8-weeks. Secondary outcomes included measures of language, processing speed, and executive functioning. A multi-stage approach was used to examine cognitive outcomes, which included evaluation of effect sizes, statistical effects, and rate of clinically meaningful responses. In this pilot trial, no statistically significant differences on cognitive outcomes were found between sham and active HD-tDCS immediately post-treatment (p's > 0.05). However, moderate-to-large effect sizes were identified for enhanced RAVLT total learning (Cohen's d = 0.69-0.93) and phonemic fluency (d = 1.08-1.49) for both active HD-tDCS conditions compared to sham, with rates of clinically relevant improvement between 25 and 33%. Meaningful enhancement persisted to 8 weeks only for the 1 mA condition. Multiple sessions of HD-tDCS over the medial prefrontal cortex appears to have potential to produce meaningful cognitive enhancements in a proportion of patients having AD with improvements maintained for at least 8 weeks in some. ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05270408). Registered December 30, 2021.

Sequence of episodic memory-related behavioral and brain-imaging abnormalities in type 2 diabetes.

Episodic memory decline is a common complication of type 2 diabetes (T2D). To comprehensively explore the neural mechanisms underlying it, we aimed to explore the sequence that episodic memory-related behavioral and brain-imaging biomarkers appear abnormal in the progression of T2D. We enrolled 62 healthy controls and 110 patients with T2D. The California Verbal Learning Test, Montreal cognitive assessment, and Stroop color word test was used to assess the episodic memory, general cognitive function, and executive function. Principal component analysis was applied to extract behavioral biomarkers. Imaging biomarkers included structural and functional MRI features of the entorhinal cortex-hippocampus and hippocampus-anterior cingulate cortex pathways. We used a novel discriminative event-based model to determine the sequence that memory-related biomarkers appear abnormal and estimate the stage of memory decline. T2D patients exhibited poorer memory, general cognitive function, and executive function compared to healthy controls after controlling age, sex, and education level. In the progression of T2D, functional interaction between brain regions showed abnormalities first, followed by memory tests, the cerebral spontaneous neural activity, and finally the gray matter volume. Besides, abnormalities appeared earlier in the entorhinal cortex than in the anterior cingulate cortex. Later stage of memory decline was distributed in older patients with T2D and was associated with higher systolic blood pressure, postprandial blood glucose, and low-density lipoprotein. In T2D, behavioral and brain imaging biomarkers of episodic memory appear abnormal in a specific sequence, and the stage of memory decline was closely associated with old age and vascular risk factors. NCT02420470, ClinicalTrials.gov ( https://www. gov/ ).

Dairy intake and cognitive function in older adults in three cohorts: a mendelian randomization study.

Meta-analyses of observational studies on the effect of dairy on cognitive function have yielded inconclusive results, potentially due to unmeasured confounding. To avoid the no-unmeasured confounding assumption, we used lactase persistence genetic variant as an instrumental variable, for which the CC genotype is associated with lower lactase production and, consequently, lower dairy consumption. We used it to assess the effect of long-term consumption of total and non-fermented dairy on cognitive function. We included 43,836 individuals over 55 years old with genotyping, dietary data, and cognitive function measurements from three population-based studies: CoLaus|PsyCoLaus (Switzerland), the Rotterdam Study (the Netherlands) and the Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (CLSA - Canada). We performed a one-sample Mendelian randomization using two-stage least-squares regression. First, we estimated total and non-fermented dairy consumption by T-allele frequency. Second, we used the estimated dairy consumption in linear regression models on general cognition, assessed by the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Mental Alternation Test, executive function, verbal fluency, verbal learning, and memory. Per T-allele, total dairy intake and non-fermented was 24.8 and 15.3g/day higher in PsyCoLaus, 57.9 and 49.8g/day in the Rotterdam Study, and 0.31 and 0.29 times/day in CLSA, respectively. We found no association between the genetically predicted difference and the MMSE in PsyCoLaus and the Rotterdam Study. However, lactase persistent individuals scored 3.4 (95% CI2.1- 4.7) and 3.5 (95% CI 2.3-4.7) points more in the Mental Alternation Test for total and fermented dairy, respectively, in CLSA. Similarly, lactase persistent participants in CLSA had higher verbal fluency, verbal learning and executive function, but no differences were found in the other cohorts. Such inconsistencies might stem from different FFQs across cohorts and consumption ranges. Nonetheless, the generally small magnitude of effect sizes may suggest that there is no real effect between total or non-fermented dairy intake and cognitive function. The evidence for a causal effect of dairy consumption on general cognitive function is weak, consistent with previous results from classic analysis from observational studies. Interventions targeting dairy are unlikely to have a relevant effect on cognitive function.

Humanism and Constructivism Learning Theories (Their Application in Islamic Religious Education Learning)

Humanistic learning theory emphasizes the importance of human aspects in the educational process. Meanwhile, constructivism focuses on the process of how students build knowledge and understanding through experience and interaction with their environment. Both of these theories are essential for educators to understand as a foundation for implementing learning activities. Based on previous research, it seems that there has been no research that examines Humanism and Constructivism Learning Theories (Their Application in Islamic Religious Education Learning) especially literature review research. The purpose of this study is to identify and highlight several publications that examine how humanism and constructivism learning theories (their application in islamic religious education learning). This research uses a literature review, where data is collected from scholarly writings or literature. The findings indicate that in humanistic learning theory, this approach encourages educators to consider students' needs, interests, and motivations, making the learning process more personal and meaningful. Meanwhile, constructivist theory helps students connect religious teachings to daily life, making the material more relevant and applicable. The integration of both theories in Islamic Religious Education (PAI) learning practice can create a holistic learning experience. This will contribute to the development of strong character and deep spiritual understanding in students.

Meaning and Mechanisms of Birdsong: Inspiration for Pneumology

In contrast to humans, the location where sound is produced in birds is not the larynx, but rather the so-called "vocal box" (scientific term "Syrinx"). In some species the syrinx is located at the bifurcation point of the trachea into the two main bronchi (tracheal vocal head), while in some in the main bronchi (bronchial vocal head). During inspiration, part of the air flows into the lungs, and the part needed for singing flows into the air sacs adjacent to the lungs. During expiration, air leaves the air sacs and flows through the syrinx, where the song is created. When birds sing in two voices at the same time, individual sequences are formed simultaneously in the right and left parts of the syrinx.The song analysis is based on spectrograms (so-called sonagrams), which graphically represent the frequency spectrum of bird song.The song consists of one or more verses, which in turn consist of the variable or constant sequence of motives or syllables. Some songbirds have an enormous repertoire of syllables and verses (max. up to 7000 verses per day). In addition to singing, most bird species also have much simpler begging, contact, threatening, flight, alarm and copulation calls.Male birds sing primarily for two reasons: 1. They use song to woo a potential partner. This song provides the females with important information about the applicant's performance and health. 2. Singing serves to defend the territory.In around 40 % of songbird species, females also sing. Pairs of some species sing in perfect synchronization.A number of songbirds imitate both the voices of other songbirds and ambient noises, and many songbirds have regional dialects.Song development depends on genetics and other factors such as the environment, metabolism and hormonal influences. It proceeds step by step and initially includes relatively primitive sequences (so-called "subsongs"), then leads through more complex intermediate forms ("plastic songs") and finally to the completed singing pattern ("full songs").Young birds learn the song of their species at a time when they are not yet singing themselves, often as nestlings aged 10 to 50 days from older members of the species, usually from their fathers.The song of young birds develops, based on the template of adult song, in a network of sensory-motor neurons in the forebrain.Songbirds, especially the zebra finch, currently offer the best model for the neural basis of human language learning. In birds, the so-called "High Vocal Center" orchestrates all brain regions relevant to songs, with the neural control of song being sensitive to sex hormones.

Balancing technology and humans – A sociomaterialistic approach to enhance learning effectiveness in the digital era

Purpose This research paper elaborates on how to balance the social (human interaction) and material (technology) aspects of e-learning and development (e-L&amp;D) to enhance learning effectiveness in an organization. Design/methodology/approach This qualitative study was implemented in two phases – in the first phase, 30 employees from oil and gas industry were reached through three focus group discussions (company-wise). The employees were spread over three different companies within the state using the same e-learning platform successfully for more than five years. Discussions were conducted to understand their experiences while using e-learning platforms. In the second phase, pain points from the first phase were discussed with eight HR practitioners from the same industry through interviews to propose countermeasures for balancing human interaction and learning effectiveness. Findings The findings show that the use of e-L&amp;D has increased learning effectiveness but reduced human interaction. This limited human interaction negatively impacts the relationship between the use of e-L&amp;D and learning effectiveness. Countermeasures have been suggested through this article to optimize learning effectiveness in the ongoing digital scenario. Research limitations/implications Other factors influencing learning effectiveness were not considered for this study. Longitudinal study would strengthen the findings. Practical implications A humane approach in e-learning fosters more productive and happier workplaces. This study guides the organization to rightly invest time and money in e-learning resources. Originality/value Many publications unerringly prove how digitalization has productively transformed e-learning and development. This paper adds to the ongoing discussion by focusing on the balance between ‘human’ advantage and ‘digital’ advantage in organizations.

Multidimensional Classification and Prediction of Outcome Following Traumatic Brain Injury.

This study aimed to identify outcome clusters among individuals with traumatic brain injury (TBI), 6months to 10years post-injury, in an Australian rehabilitation sample, and determine whether scores on 12 dimensions, combined with demographic and injury severity variables, could predict outcome cluster membership 1 to 3years post-injury. Rehabilitation hospital. A total of 467 individuals with TBI, aged 17 to 87 (M =44.2years), 70% male, with mean post-traumatic amnesia 24days (range 0.5-455days), were assessed a mean of 3.4years post-injury (range 0.5-10years). A subgroup of 138 participants was also evaluated as rehabilitation inpatients and followed up 1 year post-injury. Prospective observational study. TBI Quality of Life subscales (Upper Extremity, Pain Interference, Headache Pain, Anxiety, Resilience, Emotional and Behavioral Dyscontrol, General Cognitive Concerns, Independence, and Economic Quality of Life Scale), Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory, Family Assessment Device General Functioning Scale, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-IV Letter-Number-Sequencing and Coding, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Trail Making Test Part A, Verbal Fluency Test, Word Memory Test, Participation Assessment with Recombined Tools-Objective, and Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended. K-means cluster analysis revealed 5 clusters across 12 dimensions: Good Outcome, High Cognition, Poor Cognition, Poor Outcome, and Poor Adjustment, aligning with Sherer and colleagues' clusters. Inpatient assessments (n=138) identified profiles predictive of outcome group membership. Participants with Good Outcomes exhibited lower anxiety and higher independence, self-esteem, and resilience, despite some cognitive deficits. High Cognition correlated with robust Economic and Family Support. Poor Cognition aligned with impaired cognitive function but positive psychosocial ratings suggest limited self-awareness. Poor Outcome featured low initial cognitive scores and poor psychosocial adjustment. Poor Adjustment participants, without inpatient cognitive impairments, reported persistent pain, physical symptoms, and emotional distress. Findings support the evaluation of cognitive and psychosocial factors during rehabilitation to predict outcomes with potential to inform rehabilitative interventions to optimize outcomes.

Cognitive Outcomes After Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for the Treatment of Late-Life Depression: Résultats cognitifs après la stimulation magnétique transcrânienne pour le traitement de la dépression chez les personnes âgées.

Late-life depression (LLD) is often accompanied by cognitive impairment, which may persist despite antidepressant treatment. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is an efficacious treatment for depression, with potential benefits on cognitive functioning. However, research on cognitive effects is inconclusive, relatively sparse in LLD, and predominantly focused on group-level cognitive changes. This study aimed to explore individual-level cognitive changes following rTMS treatment in patients with LLD. Data were analyzed from 153 patients with LLD from the FOUR-D study (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT02998580) who received bilateral standard rTMS or theta burst stimulation (TBS) targeting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Cognitive function was assessed pre- and post-treatment using measures of executive function, information processing speed, and learning and memory. Reliable change indices, adjusted for practice effects and test-retest reliability, were employed to evaluate individual-level cognitive changes. Chi-square tests examined if proportions of cognitive improvers differed from expected proportions. Cognitive performance from baseline to end of treatment remained stable for most patients. Reliably improved performance was observed in 0.0% to 20.0% of participants across cognitive measures, while worsened performance was observed in 0.0% to 2.7%. A small but significant proportion (20.0%) of participants showed improvement in verbal learning. Bilateral standard rTMS or TBS of the DLPFC in LLD yielded no substantial cognitive enhancing effects, although a small proportion showed improved verbal learning after treatment. Importantly, both interventions were cognitively safe with relatively stable performance across time. Future research is needed to explore approaches to enhance the cognitive benefits of standard rTMS and TBS in patients with LLD.

Neuroscientific knowledge and its interfaces with the educational process

This article consists of a literature review that explores the intersection between neuroscience and education, highlighting how the impact of neuroscientific knowledge can influence the improvement of the educational process. Based on an analysis of the main findings of neuroscience regarding learning, attention, memory, emotion, and brain plasticity, there has been a constant and ongoing interest in recent years. This is due to the ability of these studies to provide crucial information about brain functioning and how it can affect human development and learning. This work will explore the interfaces between neuroscientific knowledge and the educational process, highlighting the importance of this information to improve the quality of education and maximize the potential of students, as well as foster a culture of lifelong learning that allows individuals to develop essential skills and competencies for the contemporary world.