Spanish Learners Research Articles

Second language learners’ sensitivity to grammatical gender in Spanish–English codeswitching environments

The present study investigates how English learners of Spanish compute gender agreement in Spanish–English asymmetrical switches (i.e. el key vs. la key ‘the.masc/fem key’). Twenty-six English learners of Spanish at intermediate-to-advanced second language (L2) proficiency completed a forced-choice elicitation task involving two codeswitching environments: Spanish determiner–English noun switches (Task 1) and English–Spanish switched copula constructions (Task 2). English nouns occurring in these codeswitching environments are controlled for semantic gender in the case of human nouns and for the grammatical gender of the Spanish translation equivalent in the case of inanimate nouns. The study also explores whether L2 proficiency and codeswitching experience influence L2 learners’ gender decisions in codeswitching. Gender agreement was almost categorical with human nouns whereby female nouns are feminine and male nouns are masculine. A mixed-effects logistic regression analysis further revealed that participants were more likely to apply masculine gender to inanimate nouns in both tasks, while the majority of the participants performed below chance with feminine gender. We stress the importance of separating animate from inanimate nouns in experimental L2 research. We argue that L2 learners’ preference for masculine gender in codeswitching is a reflex of a probabilistic default gender driven by the L2 grammar, rather than evidence for the retrieval of the grammatical gender of the translation equivalent.

Inflected infinitives in SLA: A study of L1-Brazilian Portuguese–L2-Spanish speakers

This article discusses inflected infinitives in adult first language (L1) Brazilian speakers whose second language (L2) is Spanish. We focus on adjunct clauses headed with para in cases involving same and different subjects in the matrix and the embedded clause. These languages differ in that Brazilian Portuguese, but not Spanish, allows for inflected infinitives, and we provide evidence that these bilinguals are using innovative forms, i.e. inflected infinitives in their L2. We examine our findings under a lens of L1 transfer, L1 pre-emption, and the difficulty posed by the subset–superset relationship between the L1 and the L2. Additionally, we propose that Brazilian Portuguese-speaking L2 learners of Spanish at an initial stage of L2 acquisition encounter challenges abandoning L1 strategies and apply the tense projection’s features in the inflected infinitives of their L1 into the verb forms of their L2. We further propose that those L2 learners with greater vocabulary knowledge succeed in abandoning the L1 strategies that are unavailable in the L2, in contrast to those with a more limited vocabulary knowledge.

Creating and evaluating corpus-informed word lists for adolescent, beginner-to-low-intermediate learners of French, German, and Spanish

This study explores some of the implications of policy changes relating to the composition and use of word lists for French, German, and Spanish as foreign languages in secondary schools in England. Against the backdrop of literature relating to word list creation and use, we review requirements for the vocabulary content of high-stakes examinations in these languages under current and new policy, and describe the methodological steps we took in collaboration with teachers and members of an awarding organization to create corpus-informed lists for adolescent, beginner-to-low-intermediate learners based on frequency, word-topic relatedness, and teacher judgments of usefulness, relevance and difficulty. Under current policy, awarding organizations provide educators with non-mandatory, topic-driven word lists structured around pre-determined themes. We analyse the content of lists compiled using each approach (corpus-informed or topic-driven) and examine their lexical coverage of four corpora designed to represent potential learning goals of adolescents: passing exams, further study, reading and discussing young adult literature, and engaging with web content. Despite being 36%–44% (foundation tier) and 11%–21% (higher tier) shorter, the new lists cover an average 11% (foundation tier) and 18% (higher tier) more of every corpus. Our further analyses suggest that these stark results can be attributed to (1) the nature of the content (rather than function) words, (2) negligible coverage benefits from multiword phrases on the current lists, and (3) a more balanced part-of-speech distribution in the new lists. Some of our methods were used by awarding organizations in England to develop accredited lists for the new examinations. Those lists share large numbers of lexical items with the lists reported here, suggesting that our findings have immediate implications for secondary school foreign language education in England. More generally, we demonstrate a replicable approach to developing short lists with high coverage, suggest some pedagogical applications, and discuss how our methods could be adapted for other contexts.

The impact of multifaceted factors on auditory mapping between acoustic cues and Spanish intonation categories in a cross-linguistic context

Recent research has revealed cross-linguistic and individual variations in the processing of acoustic cues for phonetic categorization. This study extends this line of inquiry by examining the auditory perception of native Spanish listeners and Chinese learners of Spanish, focusing on their ability to map acoustic signals onto intonation categories. Through two identification tasks employing synthesized stimuli with systematically varied acoustic and stress patterns, we investigated how listeners navigate multiple cues in recognizing Spanish sentence types. Results indicated that changes in fundamental frequency (F0), duration, and intensity significantly influenced native Spanish listeners’ intonation judgments, while Chinese learners predominantly relied on F0 modulations to differentiate statements from yes/no questions. Compared to native Spanish listeners, Chinese learners demonstrated lower sensitivity to changes across the three cues and less proficiency in reconciling cue trade-offs. Furthermore, our study revealed that both Spanish and Chinese listeners’ perceptual performance was modulated by stress patterns and their chronological age. Overall, our research elucidates the multifaceted nature of intonation perception, underscoring the critical role of linguistic background, individual characteristics, and lower-level prosodic context in the transformation of acoustic details into intonation categories.

Using word order cues to predict verb class in L2 Spanish

Abstract Prediction is a crucial mechanism of language comprehension. Our research question asked whether learners of Spanish were capable of using word order cues to predict the semantic class of the upcoming verb, and how this ability develops with proficiency. To answer this question, we conducted a self-paced reading study with three L2 Spanish groups at different proficiency levels and one native control group. Among the advanced L2 learners and native speakers, we found that reading times increased after the verb appeared in a word order not strongly associated with its semantic class. Because the only cue to the sentences’ word order was the presence or absence of the object marker a before the first noun, we suggest that these groups use this morphosyntactic cue to anticipate the semantic class of the upcoming verb. However, this pattern of processing behavior was not detected in our less experienced L2 groups.

Enhancement of Oral Mediation Competence via Revoicing Practice

Oral production plays a vital role in summative and formative foreign language (FL) examinations. Assessment rubrics to gauge oral skills are constantly developing to facilitate their understanding and evaluation. Nonetheless, there is a gap between research findings and teaching resources available (Levis, 2016). The present paper seeks to contribute to this disparity by comparing two action research studies that evidenced the benefits of using revoicing as a tool to improve speaking in spontaneous conversations. Over a hundred learners of Spanish as a FL actively dubbed or audio described videoclips as a classroom activity for several weeks. Results were triangulated and included both qualitative and quantitative data, evincing that oral productive skills are enhanced when these revoicing modes are incorporated into the teaching material. Both studies bring forward a comparison between the similarities and differences in the results, and they thoroughly review their limitations and provide relevant future lines of research. Lay summary This paper is addressed to researchers and practitioners in language learning who are interested in the enhancement of oral speech through dubbing and audio description practice. Speaking and oral production are a crucial part of formal and non-formal foreign language (FL) examinations. Assessments and rubrics are constantly developing to reduce subjectivity. There is agreement that defining the thorny elements that involve speaking facilitates understanding and evaluation. However, there is still a gap between research findings and teaching resources available. The present paper seeks to contribute to this disparity by comparing two action research studies that evidenced the benefits of using revoicing (speaking practice using clips) as a tool to improve spontaneous conversations. Over a hundred learners of Spanish as a FL actively dubbed or audio described the clips presented for several weeks. Results were triangulated and included both qualitative and quantitative data, evincing that oral productive skills are enhanced by these revoicing modes. The conclusions draw a comparison between the similarities and differences between the results in both studies, they thoroughly review their limitations and provide relevant future lines of research on the field.

Использование учебных стратегий при обучении испанскому языку как второму иностранному в языковом вузе

The article presents examples of learning strategies that are used in the process of learning Spanish and offers models of learning tasks within the framework of learning strategies for different levels of Spanish proficiency. The necessity of familiarizing students with the culture of Spain and Latin American countries is indicated. The purpose of the study is to identify the effectiveness of using educational strategies in classes on mastering Spanish as a second foreign language at a language university. Metacognitive, communicative, interactive and affective strategies and examples of their use in teaching Spanish as a second foreign language are chosen as the object of research. It is noted that the application of educational strategies in practical classes contributes to success and helps a future specialist in their further professional activities. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the proof of the need to use specific learning strategies to achieve a high level of proficiency in a foreign language in practical classes at a language university. As a result of the study, the essence of the concept of “learning strategy” was revealed, communicative situations were created and described, as well as a number of other types of exercises that took place in practical Spanish classes. The effectiveness of using metacognitive, communicative, interactive, affective strategies to increase motivation and achieve a high level of foreign language proficiency, as well as to promote a tolerant attitude towards the culture of the target language, was shown.

Social virtual reality for L2 Spanish development: Learning how to interact with others in a high‐immersion virtual space

AbstractResearch indicates that high‐immersion virtual reality (VR) has several unique affordances for language learning that contribute to learning outcomes, such as boosting learners’ confidence, engagement, and motivation. However, little is known about the extent to which VR promotes language skills, in particular learners’ verbal interaction using a second language (L2). The present study uses an intervention design to examine the impact of high‐immersion VR on L2 Spanish learners’ interactional development and perceptions of VR experience. Twenty‐six beginning‐level Spanish learners engaged in four social VR sessions over a 2‐week period. Learners’ perceptions of social VR were assessed through surveys and focus group interviews, and their changes in interaction‐involved language performance were evaluated. The results reinforce previous research in showing that learners felt a heightened sense of presence in VR and that interacting in Spanish in the immersive virtual space was more enjoyable and less nerve‐wracking than face‐to‐face conversation, albeit equally beneficial to learning. Quantitative analyses of learners’ interaction revealed significant improvement in terms of their engagement, clarity, and content appropriateness. However, participants reported that technical issues could at times limit the pedagogical usefulness of VR. These findings reinforce the use of social VR in L2 instruction and provide novel insights about performance gains and Spanish L2 pedagogy in a virtual space.

Evaluation of international educational programme student engagement in Spanish classes in a multilingual learning environment

Importance. The main goal of the study is to study the impact of multilingual education of uni versity students on the degree of their involvement in the educational process, as well as to prove the positive impact of involvement on the level of mastery of a second foreign language – Spanish. Although the impact of engagement on student achievement in traditional learning has previously been extensively researched, less is known about how it influences student learning in the context of multilingual learning. The research contributes to the study of student learning engagement in higher education by exploring the less studied context of learning in a multilingual environment.Materials and Methods. The study involves 2 groups of 3rd year undergraduate students (N = 47) of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University. To identify the degree of student engage ment in the process of learning Spanish, questionnaires, testing and statistical methods are used.Results and Discussion. In the experimental group (N = 23), a multilingual approach is imple mented. In the control group (N = 24), the English Medium Instruction-based approach is used. The Student Engagement Scale is measured using the three most common dimensions identified by researchers (behavioral, emotional, and cognitive engagement). Paired samples Student’s t-test and Pearson’s correlation test are performed to analyze descriptive statistics.Conclusion. Based on the results of student engagement, it can be concluded that students in the experimental group show a higher level of emotional and cognitive activity.

Enseñanza y aprendizaje del español en las universidades japonesas

Since the Japanese people’s first encounter with the Spanish language in the 16th century, the teaching and learning of Spanish has been evolving in response to the needs of each era. Despite numerous historical challenges, interest in the Spanish language and everything related to it has increased over the years. This article examines the situations of differing historical periods to better understand the objectives for which Spanish has been studied, as well as the numerous types of teachers, students, and commonly used methodologies. To do this, various academic articles and books offering testimonies from people who lived through those periods are examined. The corpus developed by this article’s author, which includes textbooks published since the early 20th century, will also be analyzed in this article. The initial contact with the Spanish language in the 16th century was through missionary work. After a stagnation in language studies due to a period of isolationism, the need to pursue Spanish as a language resumed in the 20th century for the purposes of foreign trade and migration. The idea of learning a foreign language to enrich general culture also became important in the 20th century. The change in the type of students greatly influenced learning objectives and methodologies. We are now in a transitional period with the emergence of new technologies. However, it is important to know our history in order to reflect on the direction which Spanish teaching and learning should take in the future.

The Necessary Symbiosis: How ChatGPT Co-authored a New Type of Learner’s Grammar to Be Displayed in a Digital Writing Assistant

This paper reports on an ongoing research project aimed at developing a new type of Spanish learner’s grammar, different from those found in textbooks, grammar books and dictionaries. The new grammar, designed to be displayed in digital writing assistants, will explain problems that occur in written learner texts. The paper first describes the main features and functionalities of this grammar and how it will be presented to Spanish learners. It then discusses the development of a methodology for categorising relevant error types, using a unique combination of existing grammars, dictionaries and ChatGPT, all of it supervised by lexicographers with experience in language teaching. Based on this categorisation, the paper explains how the chatbot is prompted to write explanations of the different error types, which it does very well in fruitful interaction with the human lexicographers. The methodology is described in detail with several examples. Finally, the paper explains how the original Spanish explanations are machine translated into English and Chinese, and provides examples of the final result in each language. Throughout the paper, the complex relationship between generative AI and humans is discussed, and it is concluded that a successful result like the one achieved requires both the ability to handle the chatbot properly and the knowledge of the topic being dealt with.

The Effect of Using DeepL on Improving Students' Writing Vocabulary

Abstract: As artificial intelligence technologies increasingly integrate into education, neural translation machines, such as Google Translate and DeepL, are gradually becoming an important tool for enhancing the effectiveness of foreign language learning. These technologies not only improve the efficiency of the learning experience but also address the limitations of traditional vocabulary acquisition methods. While research has examined DeepL's translation quality, there is limited focus on Spanish learners' attitudes and experiences with DeepL during the writing process, particularly regarding its impact on vocabulary enhancement and student feedback. This paper aims to investigate Chinese university students' perceptions of using DeepL to improve their Spanish writing vocabulary. The method used in this research was a descriptive quantitative technique. 60 undergraduate Spanish students completed a questionnaire. The results of this research showed that, Chinese undergraduate Spanish language students believe that the use of DeepL has a good effect on improving their writing vocabulary in general, but there are still some problems of the accuracy. Another conclusion worth emphasizing is that the use of DeepL to enrich the vocabulary of articles does not have a direct and strong connection with the improvement of the user's own vocabulary.

Evaluation on Greek and Balkanic borrowings in Spanish and Albanian, in glotodidactics of Spanish to Albanians

In this study, we aim to highlight the place of Greek borrowings in the Spanish language and in Albanian, concerning Spanish learning as a foreign language among Albanians. After we have given a synchronous view of the current situation of the Spanish language in Albania, we will stop and separate the phenomena and cases of borrowings from ancient Greek, the importance they have for Albanian and the features we encounter during the didactics of the Spanish language. We will highlight the influence of ancient languages, especially Greek, which has influenced the lexical level of the languages in question, and consequently the terms we encounter in science, culture, literature and art. After a brief overview of the history of the Spanish language, we have also classified words in several lexical fields. In the end, we will single out the role of Greek borrowings in the didactics of Spanish in the framework of the known and the unknown. These borrowings are part of the known, such as the case of photography and hydrology, which, based on the hypotheses of Krushen and Thomason, facilitate the learning of a foreign language.

Effect of perceptual training without feedback on bilingual speech perception

This study examines the effect of perceptual training without feedback on the discrimination of the Spanish stop-approximant contrasts [b]–[B], [d]–[ð], and [g]–[y]. Of interest is if the aural repetition of target stimuli improves discrimination accuracy, how many repetitions are needed to observe a significant increase in perceptual discrimination accuracy, and if there is an effect of contrast type. Perception of the Spanish target phones was assessed in adult native (L1) Spanish speakers (n = 10) and L1 English bilingual learners of L2 Spanish (n = 23) via VCV nonwords over six blocks of 10 trials, featuring Spanish approximants and voiced stops in an AX discrimination task. Results indicate a significant effect of aural stimulus repetition on discrimination accuracy scores improvement. Significant improvements were observed for all three contrasts, with discrimination gradually improving across blocks. The data indicated that the [y]–[g] contrast was the most difficult contrast and exhibited the highest rate of discrimination accuracy improvement. Discrimination accuracy score improvements were also significantly larger for L1 English listeners in comparison with the L1 Spanish listeners for this contrast.

Developing explicit and implicit L2 knowledge with Duolingo’s input-based features: Case studies of L2 Spanish learning

In this single-case study with a quasi-experimental design, we set out to examine the role of two input-based features of the language learning app Duolingo on learners’ development of implicit and explicit second language (L2) knowledge. We investigated the effect of Duolingo’s Stories feature and Podcast feature on two Spanish-L2 learners’ performance on a battery of implicit and explicit L2 knowledge tests. Once a week, over a four-week period using these input-based features, both participants repeatedly performed oral narrative tasks, timed and untimed grammaticality judgment tasks, and metalinguistic knowledge tests. The participant assigned to the Podcast condition showed meager gains in productive implicit knowledge (measured by oral narrative tasks) but decreased in receptive explicit knowledge (measured by untimed grammaticality judgment tasks). The participant assigned to the Stories condition showed a large increase in receptive implicit knowledge of Spanish (measured by timed grammaticality judgment tasks). Neither participant showed meaningful gains in the measure of productive explicit knowledge (measured by metalinguistic knowledge tasks). Although there was a slight increase in receptive explicit knowledge for the participant using Stories, the data from both participants discount the idea that app-based mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) prioritizes receptive explicit L2 knowledge, at least when considering these novel input-based features of Duolingo. These findings add nuance to previous research showing that the primary outcome of MALL app use is receptive explicit L2 knowledge.

<b>English Language Anxiety in Higher Education: A Case Study of Spanish Students</b>

This article examines the anxiety of French-speaking students in the Spanish Department at the University of Yaoundé I (Cameroon) while learning English. We used quantitative and qualitative methods. The theoretical framework adopted for this study is the Affective Filter Hypothesis developed by Krashen (2009). The results showed that anxiety is a barrier that negatively affects the learning of English by French-speaking students. Several factors were found to be at the root of this anxiety: language typology, language level, the influence of French, personality, the reactions of others, and beliefs. We also found that students were anxious about learning Spanish, but this anxiety affected them positively. The paper suggests that learners should be in permanent contact with the English language, teachers and students should develop language tolerance by focusing on the message, not the language form, and teachers should include digital technologies to lower anxiety.

Mobile-enhanced virtual exchanges through asynchronous video interaction: Learners as ethnographers in the L2 classroom to promote intercultural communicative competence

This practice report focuses on the integration of virtual exchange (VE) with mobileassisted language learning (MALL), where learners act as ethnographers within the context of language education. This VE model harnesses mobile technology capabilities to exchange personal and immersive cultural insights through asynchronous video content using Flip.com. The model consists of three integrated sections: Preparation, Intercultural Exchange, and Reflection. This report covers a pilot implementation of the mobile-enhanced VE model to evaluate the outcomes on Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC). The project lasted eight weeks, covering various topics, such as greetings, food, and education. Participants were L2 learners of Spanish in the United States and L1 Spanish speakers in Spain. Outcomes were evaluated through a survey where students in the United States self-assessed their perceived ICC gains. This survey, grounded in Byram’s (2009) ICC model, measured changes in students’ attitudes, knowledge, skills of interpreting and relating, skills of interaction, and critical cultural awareness. Students reported substantial improvements in all areas of ICC, highlighting enhanced engagement and understanding of the target culture facilitated by the mobileenhanced VE model. This report provides insights for the incorporation of mobile technology for VE projects in L2 settings, emphasizing its role in expanding global interconnectedness and deepening intercultural learning among learners by offering a more dynamic, authentic, and immersive learning experience.

Modelling the effects of the reading medium on L2 Spanish reading emotions: The moderating role of individual difference variables

While existing research has documented that the reading medium significantly impacts language learners’ reading comprehension processes and outcomes, empirical evidence on how the reading medium influences reading emotions is lacking. The present study contributes to the field by investigating whether reading emotions (i.e. enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom) of learners of Spanish as a second language (L2) differ between mobile-assisted and paper-based reading processes. In addition, it explores whether individual difference variables (i.e. L2 Spanish proficiency and preferences for the reading medium) moderate the relationship between the reading medium and reading emotions. The instruments used are reading comprehension tests and questionnaire surveys administered to a sample of 245 first-year college students majoring in Spanish. Paired samples t-tests indicate that L2 Spanish learners perceive more enjoyment and less negative emotions when reading from a paper-based format than those from a mobile-assisted mode. In addition, moderation analyses indicate that both L2 Spanish proficiency and preferences for the medium are moderators of the relationships between the medium and reading emotions. More proficient L2 Spanish readers perceive more enjoyment and less anxiety and boredom when reading from paper than those from mobile phones; less proficient L2 readers demonstrate the opposite pattern. Students’ preference for mobile-assisted language reading would significantly enhance their reading enjoyment while reducing reading anxiety and boredom when they engage in such a type of reading mode. These results imply that individual differences are crucial factors in shaping students’ emotions across different reading modes. Reasons for differences in reading emotions across mediums and the moderating roles of individual variables are discussed.

Language learners’ expectations and satisfaction level in a telecollaboration project

The aim of this paper is to analyse the data collected in a six-week telecollaboration project between 9 Spanish-speaking learners of English and 5 international students from the Erasmus+ programme, who engaged in both synchronous and asynchronous activities with 10 English-speaking learners of Spanish. Data was gathered through a pre-questionnaire enquiring about learners’ expectations at the beginning of the project and a post-questionnaire seeking information about students’ satisfaction at the end of the project. The results revealed that students’ expectations mostly aligned with the perceived benefits after carrying out the exchange. However, some of the participants found it difficult to meet on a weekly basis with their virtual partners as was required. This suggests that students participating in telecollaboration projects may need further guidance and help to plan their meetings. Despite this, most of the comments received at the end of the project were positive and showed participants’ overall satisfaction.

Emotion regulation elicits cross-linguistically shared and language-specific forms of linguistic distancing

Cognitively reappraising a stressful experience—reinterpreting the situation to blunt its emotional impact—is effective for regulating negative emotions. English speakers have been shown to engage in linguistic distancing when reappraising, spontaneously using words that are more abstract or impersonal. Across two preregistered studies (N = 299), we investigated whether such shifts in language use generalize to Spanish, a language proposed to offer unique tools for expressing psychological distance. Bilingual speakers of Spanish and English and a comparison group of English monolinguals transcribed their thoughts in each of their languages while responding naturally to negative images or reappraising them. Reappraisal shifted markers of psychological distance common to both languages (e.g., reduced use of “I”/“yo”), as well as Spanish-specific markers (e.g., greater use of “estar”: “to be” for temporary states). Whether these linguistic shifts reflected successful emotion regulation depended on language experience: in exploratory analyses, the common markers were more strongly linked to reduced negative affect for late than early Spanish learners, and one Spanish-specific marker (“estar”) also predicted reduced negative affect for early learners. Our findings suggest that people distance their language in both cross-linguistically shared and language-specific ways when regulating their emotions.