Leader-subordinate Relationships Research Articles

Leapfrogging at work: influencing higher levels in the chain of command

PurposeActs of interpersonal influence are observed throughout organizations, and most typically, in direct supervisor–subordinate relationships. However, researchers have focused less on subordinates bypassing the chain of command and targeting their supervisor's supervisor with influence attempts. We conceptualize a new term, “leapfrogging,” as subordinates' attempts to influence and manage the impressions of their supervisor's supervisor. Here we focus on influencing the target's perception of likability (the focus of ingratiation) and competence (the focus of self-promotion). This study focuses on its personal and situational antecedents.Design/methodology/approachGiven the central role of social exchange and psychological processes within this phenomenon, we build on a social exchange and a social cognition approach. Using a sample of 131 university support personnel service employees, hierarchical regression is used to test the hypotheses.FindingsThe following antecedents of leapfrogging are hypothesized and tested: the subordinate personal characteristics of Machiavellianism, need for achievement, and fear of negative evaluation, and the situational/relational characteristic of leader–member exchange (LMX). Of these potential antecedents, subordinate Machiavellianism and LMX were the strongest predictors, and subordinates' need for achievement and fear of negative evaluation were moderate predictors.Practical implicationsLeapfrogging occurs when actors are frustrated with their current situation and desire change. However, influence tactics aimed at a subordinate's supervisor's supervisor may further strain a low-quality leader–subordinate relationship. As actors become increasingly dissatisfied and leave, this may result in increased organizational costs related to the loss of experienced employees and the hiring and training of new ones.Originality/valueMost upward influence research has largely ignored subordinate influence attempts that go outside of the normal chain of command and target their boss's boss. The present study addresses this gap in the literature by examining leapfrog behaviors. Although acknowledged in a limited manner as a legitimate organizational behavior, this topic has received virtually no empirical attention.

Leader negative feedback-seeking and leader effectiveness in leader-subordinate relationships: The paradoxical role of subordinate expertise

From a motivational perspective of feedback-seeking behavior, we examined the mediating role of leaders' negative feedback-seeking from subordinates in the relationship between the quality of leader-member exchange (LMX) and subordinates' evaluation of leader effectiveness, along with the moderating role of subordinate expertise in the mediated relationship. Using 151 unique matched sets of leader and subordinate reports obtained from 5 large Korean companies, we found that the positive relationship between LMX and leader effectiveness was mediated by leaders' negative feedback-seeking. Additionally, the positive relationship between LMX and leader negative feedback-seeking was stronger when perceived subordinate expertise was lower. Lastly, the indirect effect of LMX on leader effectiveness through leader negative feedback-seeking was stronger when perceived subordinate expertise was lower. These findings were obtained after controlling for leaders' power distance and goal orientations that might influence their motives to seek or avoid feedback. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Leader narcissism and subordinate embeddedness

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between leader narcissism (LN) and subordinate embeddedness as well as to test the moderating roles of moral attentiveness (MA) and behavioral integrity (BI) on that very relationship.Design/methodology/approachData were collected from 19 five-star hotels in Turkey. The sample included 1,613 employees along with their first-line managers. The moderating roles of MA and BI on the LN and subordinate embeddedness relationship were tested using the moderated hierarchical regression analysis.FindingsThe moderated hierarchical regression analysis results revealed that there was a significant negative relationship between LN and subordinate embeddedness. In addition, this very relation was weaker when both MA and BI were higher than when they were lower.Practical implicationsThis study showed that employee perception of LN decreased employee’s job embeddedness (JE). The study findings point out the importance of reinforcing an ethical context as well as the importance of leader selection. Specifically, in order to ensure that narcissistic leaders do not thrive in organizations, it is significant to maintain an ethical context. Whether the context is ethical, unethical, or interpersonally ineffective, behaviors will likely be more salient and evaluated more negatively by coworkers. On the other hand, when narcissistic leaders are inserted in organizations with unethical contexts, the result is a perfect storm that reinforces narcissists’ unethical behaviors and potentially promotes narcissistic leaders. Still, it is likely that narcissists exhibit unethical and ineffective behaviors regardless of the ethical context, meaning that an ethical context does not necessarily prevent narcissistic leaders from behaving ineffectively and unethically. Thus, the implementation of management selection geared toward targeting precursors of unethical behaviors is an equally vital strategy to prevent unethical behaviors on the part of organizational leaders.Originality/valueThe study provides new insights into the influence that LN may have on subordinate JE and the moderating roles of MA and BI in the link between LN and JE. The paper also offers a practical assistance to employees in the hospitality industry and their leaders interested in building trust and increasing leader-subordinate relationship and JE.

Ethical Leadership: Not Everyone Responds Equally

ABSTRACTTheoretical frameworks associated with ethical leadership have not fully considered the nature of the leader–follower exchange, and, in addition, few studies have considered the impact of follower individual differences in reactions to ethical leadership. Our research extends the customary social exchange perspective of transactional and relational resources by accounting for the ideological resources (i.e., value-oriented principles) that can also imbue the leader–subordinate relationship. Second, differences in equity sensitivity are hypothesized to moderate the influence of ethical leadership on employee attachment to the organization. We predicted that the impact of ethical leadership on organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and organizational identification is greater for individuals with a more benevolent orientation. In Study 1 (N = 223), equity sensitivity moderated the influence of ethical leadership on organizational commitment and organizational identification. In Study 2 (N = 24...

Responsible Leadership: Review and Prospects

The responsible leadership has gained considerable attention in contemporary management scholarship. As a new leadership theory, responsible leadership transcends traditional dyadic leader-subordinate relationship, and focuses on a full-range view of leader-stakeholder relationship, which can effectively deal with new challenges from all sectors of society. In this paper, we first provide an overview of the conception, structure, and measurement of responsible leadership. Besides, we analyze and conclude the antecedents and consequences of responsible leadership. Finally, we put forward some suggestions about future research in this field.

Does Leader–Member Exchange Accentuate the Relationship Between Leader Behaviors and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors?

Although the effects of leader behaviors on organizational citizenship behaviors is well documented, research on the leader–subordinate relationship as a boundary condition of this relationship is less clear. Drawing on social exchange and personal identification theories, we demonstrate that leader–member exchange moderates the relationship between relations- and change-oriented leader behaviors and organizational citizenship behaviors. Overall, these findings suggest that how subordinates perceive and respond to leader behaviors depends on the nature of the leader–subordinate relationship. Implications for theory and practice are discussed, and areas for future research are explored.

The Impact of Leader Humor on Subordinate Job Satisfaction

Conventional wisdom from the popular and scholarly literatures consistently suggests that positive humor by leaders can be beneficial, but that negative humor should be avoided at all costs. To explore the boundaries of that conventional wisdom, we draw on leadership and humor theory to develop and test a conceptual model describing the relationships between leader humor, leader–subordinate relationship quality, the subordinate’s tenure with the leader, and subordinate job satisfaction. Analysis of multilevel data from 241 subordinates nested within 70 leaders in 54 organizations revealed that the relationship between leader humor and job satisfaction was dependent on the quality of the leader–subordinate relationship, and not the positive/negative tone of the leader’s humor. Specifically, both positive and negative (i.e., affiliative and aggressive) leader humor styles were positively associated with job satisfaction when the relationship was positive, but both types were negatively associated with job satisfaction when the relationship was negative. Our results also suggested that the effects of positive humor increased with increasing subordinate tenure. We discuss the practical implications of these findings, including the importance of understanding the relational context of humor.

Leadership and culture in Asia: the case of Malaysia

This study advances prior theoretical research by investigating the influence of cultural forces in our understanding of leadership. The research provides new insights by linking transformational and transactional leadership to the Malaysian cultural environment. Using a quantitative approach by administering the multifactor leadership questionnaire MLQ-5x-short, 138 usable responses were analysed. Findings indicate that cultural foundations contribute significantly to transformational leadership behaviours to facilitate the creation of a harmonious leader–subordinate relationship. Furthermore, this study contributes to an understanding of how specific leaders' behaviours are affected by cultural forces, and reveals leadership attributes that are contingent upon dynamic environmental conditions. The study extends beyond the obvious, and reveals subtle yet important culture-specific differences. The Malaysian managers, regardless of gender, show a preference for leading within the transformational leadership framework. This has led us to infer that cultural forces do indeed play an important role in determining leadership styles.

Dirty Hands Make Dirty Leaders?! The Effects of Touching Dirty Objects on Rewarding Unethical Subordinates as a Function of a Leader’s Self-Interest

We studied the role of social dynamics in moral decision-making and behavior by investigating how physical sensations of dirtiness versus cleanliness influence moral behavior in leader–subordinate relationships, and whether a leader’s self-interest functions as a boundary condition to this effect. A pilot study (N = 78) revealed that when participants imagined rewarding (vs. punishing) unethical behavior of a subordinate, they felt more dirty. Our main experiment (N = 96) showed that directly manipulating dirtiness by allowing leaders to touch a dirty object (fake poop) led to more positive evaluations of, and higher bonuses for, unethical subordinates than touching a clean object (hygienic hand wipe). This effect, however, only emerged when the subordinate’s unethical behavior did not serve the leader’s own interest. Hence, subtle cues such as bodily sensations can shape moral decision-making and behavior in leader–subordinate relationships, but self-interest, as a core characteristic of interdependence, can override the influence of such cues on the leader’s moral behavior.

Erratum to: Organizational leadership in Central Asia and the Caucasus: Research considerations and directions

The original version of this article unfortunately missed some data on the biography of Dr. Kiran M. Ismail. The complete biography is as follows: Kiran M. Ismail (PhD, University of Texas at Dallas) is an assistant professor of Management at St. John’s University. Her research centers on business, leadership and management in transition economies, interand intra-organizational social networks, and organization behavior and human resource management issues associated with intra-organizational relationships, including leader-subordinate relationships. Asia Pac J Manag (2010) 27:803 DOI 10.1007/s10490-010-9209-5

Organisational justice and employee work engagement: LMX as mediator

The paper examines the role that organisational justice plays in determining employees' work engagement and the way quality of leader-subordinate relationship (LMX) mediates this association. Data was obtained from an airline company from the Middle East. The sample consisted of 218 employees from several job levels who responded to a questionnaire measuring the study variables. Results indicated that distributive and procedural justice perception promoted quality relationship between leader and subordinate and higher quality of leader-subordinate relationship contributed to employees' work engagement. Among the three organisational justice factors, only interactional justice was related to employee work engagement. The study found a full mediation effect of LMX on interactional justice and employee work engagement.

Leading Faculty: Understanding the Connection between Goals and Values

Faculty can never do enough. We need them to teach, write, advise, mentor, network, and conductgroundbreaking research. And when we are faced with extremely limited budgets, hiring freezes, andincreased pressure to bring in research funds, university faculty are counted on to pick up the fallenpieces. Academic leaders find themselves asking faculty to give more time and effort to assist inadvancing their institutions, but at what price? Typically, as leaders demand more of the faculty, moraletends to decrease and grumbling skyrockets. In actuality, it is like that in any organization. However, it isno secret that leader-subordinate relationships in academic settings are not quite the same as those inbusiness and commerce. Academic leaders do not have the same managerial dynamic with theirfaculty as a vice president of a manufacturing company would with his or her employees. The powerand authority those professionals use to motivate their employees is not the best way to engage facultyin higher education.

The Peculiarities of Organizational Socialization Among Newcomers with Different Work Experience

The aim of this study was to discover if there are any differences among organizational socialization of newcomers who already have work experience and employees who are new in labour market. And if the differences were found, to establish what organizational factors have the biggest impact on them. 71 participants took part in the study: 33 participants were working in the first jobs, 38 were working in the second or later jobs. Participants fill out the questionnaires at the end of the 3rd month within the organization. They were asked to evaluate their knowledge about the organization, the amount of experienced of work related anxiety, their attitudes towards the organization they work and towards their job, and the position in newcomer – seniority continuum (feeling of being real member of organization). Additionally they were asked to evaluate leadership style of their executives, quality of leader-subordinate relationship, organizational culture and work group climate. Work group size and mentorship system in organization were the variables which also were taken into analysis. As distinct from other surveys, the results showed no correlation between the work related anxiety and other parameters of organizational socialization. Should the longitudinal studies fail to prove the lack of correlations to be the result of unlinear dependability between time spent in organization and lessen job related anxiety, other emotional adjustment measures are to be considered. Despite the fact that newcomers with and without work experience equally rate themselves in newcomer – seniority continuum, this evaluation is the result of different issues. Those who start their work career have much more information about organization (Mann Whitney z = –1.98, p = 0.047) but still they feel stronger anxiety (Mann Whitney z = –2.29, p = 0,022) than those who already have work experience. The analysis of the organizational factors which affect new employee socialization suggests that the size of newcomer’s work group is negatively related to the results of organizational socialization – the bigger the work group, the worse the organizational socialization (regression analysis R = 0.492, R2 = 0.242, p = 0.000). The better leader – member Exchange evaluations, the more favourable group climate, the help of the official mentor during the first months working in organization, the mild exposure of innovative organizational culture, on the other hand, leads to better results of the organizational socialization (stepwise regression analysis R = 0.734, R2 = 0.539, p = 0.000). Yet again different factors contribute differently to the quality of new employee socialization when newcomers with and without previous work experience were analyzed separately. The results add more arguments for the individualized organizational socialization theory vs. collective one.

The instrumentality of emotion in leader-subordinate relationships

This study investigates emotion work in leader-subordinate relationships. The data were collected through semi-structured, in depth interviews of eight leaders and eight subordinates. All subjects reported suppressing, exaggerating or faking emotions during interactions. The motives for regulating emotions fell into four different categories: obeying emotional display rules; strategic use of emotions with intention of reaching specific goals; consideration of the work environment; and avoiding possible discomfort associated with the expression of inner feelings. The leaders referred to all four categories, while the subordinates explained their emotion work primarily as means of obtaining specific goals. The majority of the subordinates, but only one leader, reported that emotional dissonance negatively influenced job satisfaction, work performance and health, or increased the tendency towards withdrawal behaviour. The study has shown the importance of focusing on both parties involved in this particular relationship. Emotional regulation seems to be a prominent and complex facet of leader–subordinate relationships.

Experienced affects in leader–subordinate relationships

This study explores the affects that leaders and subordinates experience during interaction. Two hundred and seventy leaders and five hundred and forty two subordinates recruited from the private and public sectors participated in the study. The data reveals that leader–subordinate relationships are strongly coloured by positive and negative moods, emotions and emotion-laden judgments, with four basic affective factors for both leaders and subordinates: recognition, frustration, violation and uncertainty. These factors correlate strongly with subordinates’ job satisfaction and the quality that they experienced in interaction with their immediate superiors. Correlations between these factors and subordinates’ life satisfaction were weak, suggesting that the affects are specific to the leader–subordinate relationship. Leaders’ affective experiences during interaction with subordinates seem to be less important. Correlations between the quality experienced by leaders in relationships with their subordinates, their job- and life satisfaction and their reported affects were weak or almost non-existent. The results underline the importance of focusing on both parties involved in leader–subordinate relationships, and suggest the need for a social interactionistic perspective in order to understand the leadership process. Experienced affects constitute prominent and complex facets of leader–subordinate relationships and should be studied in greater detail than has hitherto.

Leadership and Management Distinctions Among Worldwide National Quality Awards

This paper presents the leadership and management distinctions among six National Quality Awards (NQAs). In order to provide some guidelines for examining the six NQA's set of criteria, 11 aspects are outlined: (i) establishing mission statements/policies and strategies, (ii) ethics/values, (iii) role modeling, (iv) employee education/development, (v) empowerment and innovation, (vi) employee well-being, (vii) leader-subordinate relationships, (viii) application of new technologies, (ix) customer focus, (x) Total Quality/continuous improvement, and (xi) sustainable environmental management. These aspects are believed to support organizational growth and development, and represent the general contents contained in the NQAs.

A model of relational leadership: The integration of trust and leader–member exchange

This article presents a model of relational leadership based on a review of leader-member exchange (LMX) and interpersonal trust. This model asserts that the LMX relationship is built through interpersonal exchanges in which parties to the relationship evaluate the ability, benevolence, and integrity of each other. These perceptions, in turn, influence the behaviors predicted by LMX researchers. This integrated model of relational leadership provides insights into the dynamics of leader-subordinate relationships and resolves some of the inconsistencies in the LMX research without losing the richness and uniqueness of the exchange theory. A number of propositions for future research in relational leadership are also suggested.

Process and Structure in Leader-Member Exchange

Theory supporting the key premise of the leader-member exchange (LMX) approach to leadership, that leaders differentiate between subordinates, has not been fully developed. We address this deficiency by (a) returning LMX research to its historical roots in exchange processes by introducing a framework for understanding relationship quality that is based on reciprocity, and (b) extending the traditional domain of LMX research beyond the formal leader-subordinate relationship in order to offer a more complete explanation of the differentiation process. We employ insights derived from social network analysis to describe how social structure facilitates the exchange processes through which leaders assist in incorporating some members into the inner life of an organization but exclude others.

Can Leaders and Subordinates be Friends? A Classroom Approach for Addressing an Important Managerial Dilemma

Although the norm of formal, impersonal leader-subordinate relationships often prevails in contemporary organizations, it is proposed that the leadership role may be enhanced by the development of closer, less formal relationships. Using the Leader-Subordinate Friendship Questionnaire (LSFQ), the managerial dilemma of balancing such relationships is addressed. The questionnaire provides a tool for integrating the concept of leader-subordinate friendship into organizational behavior theory and practice by developing a forum for classroom discussion that can be applied to all levels of instruction, including both academic and consulting environments.

Attribution Theories of Leadership and Network Analysis

This article examines the potential of applying network analysis to attribution theories of leadership. Network analysis allows the identification of social groups linked together by work, friendship, influence, or communication relations and of the relative position of actors within the social group. Moreover, network properties such as centrality, influence domain or prestige, and the presence of isolates enable the identification of leaders in relation to their position, status, and influence in a particular social setting. The use of network analysis in evaluating leader-subordinate relationships and leader behavior descriptions is discussed and a research agenda suggested.