Leadership Of Men Research Articles

A blueprint to build women chief executive officers globally

The purpose of this article is to offer a blueprint to build women chief executive officers (CEOs) globally. It outlines essential qualities for women CEOs. It explains CEO acumen and offers tools and techniques for women to excel as CEOs. It draws a blueprint for global organizations to build women CEOs. It differentiates between women and men leaders. It emphasizes women can make better leaders than men. It illustrates with inspiring examples of women leaders including Melinda Gates, Michelle Obama, Hillary Clinton, Angela Merkel, Indra Nooyi, Ursula Burns, Meg Whitman, and Sheryl Sandberg. It implores women to seize the opportunities to break the glass ceiling to excel as CEOs. It enlightens the society cannot grow when one sex is denied with opportunities. It calls upon men to empathize with women and extend their hands with a big heart to groom them as CEOs. It advocates gender equality globally. It concludes women leaders must express their ambition in the early stage of their careers and work hard consistently and relentlessly with a focus and vision to excel as CEOs globally.

Gender and leadership aspiration: The impact of work–life initiatives

Despite the increase in female leaders, women still remain a minority. As aspiration, defined as the interest for achieving a leadership position, is one predictor of advancement, it is important to understand conditions fostering female leadership aspiration. Because women face more domestic and child care responsibilities, we predict that there is an interaction between gender and work–life initiatives. These initiatives help employees balance their work and private life through simplifying the integration and diminishing tension between the two spheres. Because the work–life interface poses greater challenges for women, we hypothesize that work–life initiatives have a stronger influence on women's leadership aspiration. Results of a survey ofN= 402 employed men and women supported this hypothesis. The interaction effect of gender and work–life initiatives on leadership aspiration was positive, implying that women's leadership aspiration is more influenced by work–life initiatives. Our other hypothesis which states that work–life initiatives—regardless of gender—are positively related to leadership aspiration was supported. Hence, men's leadership aspiration also was positively influenced by the availability of such initiatives. This study suggests that by implementing work–life initiatives, such as flexible work arrangements, leaves of absence, or on‐site child assistance, organizations may encourage leadership aspiration for both genders. Our data show that the interaction effect of gender and work–life initiatives was positively related to leadership aspiration, but this may particularly hold true for women.

Gender and leadership aspiration: Interpersonal and collective elements of cooperative climate differentially influence women and men

AbstractFemale leaders remain a minority. Because leadership aspiration is a predictor of advancement, understanding stimulating conditions is important. A neglected perspective is the impact of organizational climate. We propose that cooperative climate can engender individuals’ motivation to contribute to the organization through leadership, and that leadership aspiration of women and men is differentially sensitive to interpersonal and collective aspects of cooperative climate. We argue that women are more disposed toward relational self‐construal and men toward collective self‐construal, and hence women's leadership aspiration is more influenced by the interpersonal element of cooperative climate whereas men's leadership aspiration by the collective element of cooperative climate. Results of a survey of N = 404 employed men and women supported both hypotheses.

Linking leader and gender identities to authentic leadership in small businesses

PurposeWomen are starting businesses at unprecedented rates, yet little is known about the leadership of small business owners. Establishing new ventures may allow women to use their full abilities and benefit from a more level playing field. Business owners have the unique opportunity to lead and define their businesses based on their authentic selves, values and goals; therefore, they are more likely to be authentic leaders. Women in nontraditional industries may be challenged because the owner’s characteristics do not match those of the industry. When the enactment of one identity interferes with another identity, identity interference (II) occurs. Relational authenticity and role incongruity suggests that women founders must uniquely resolve II and find synergy among their gender and leader identities if they are to extend the boundaries of what it means to be a woman and an industry’s business leader. This research aims to determine whether gender and leader II was an antecedent or link to authentic leadership (AL).Design/methodology/approachStudy participants were from 63 businesses in the USA states of California, Ohio and Maryland. Three leader models were established to determine whether owner gender functioned as a moderator: all genders (n = 155), women only (n = 75) and men only (n = 65). The individual owners and their employees were the units of analysis and structural equation modeling was used.FindingsThe findings revealed that II was an antecedent to AL, owners were AL and owner gender moderated AL and II.Research limitations/implicationsThis study supports (Kernis, 2003; Gardner et al., 2005) the proposition that identity congruence is necessary for AL; the less interference found between gender and leader identities, the more authentic the leader. II functioned as an antecedent to AL. Moreover when the AL self’s subscales were examined relative to II, the components that were active varied dramatically based on leader gender. This suggests that addressing II and resolving the incongruence between what it mean to be a woman (or a man) and a leader contributes to the development of AL. Additionally, the AL boundary condition of relational authenticity was supported by this study; leader gender was related to the different amounts of AL (Eagly, 2005; Kernis, 2003). Support was found that AL was a dynamic process between leaders and employees. When authentic leadership questionnaire (ALQ) self (leader) and rater (employee) were compared, there was a significant amount of consistency between these ratings. For the all genders leader model, when ALQ self’s subscale was analyzed relative to the employees’ ratings, the leaders’ relational transparency was found to be active. The women only leader model revealed that AL was activated through internalized moral perspective suggesting they were able to tap into the hearts and minds of their employees. For the men only leaders, no relationship was revealed between ALQ self’s subcomponents and employee AL ratings. Relational authenticity suggests that this may be due to employees rating men owners more based on the experience and perceptions of men leaders in general and not these business owners in particular.Practical implicationsLeadership development professionals should address how II may help women examine who they are, how they work with others, and their values; decrease leader II by providing insight on how to manage potentially conflicting roles through examples of synergistic behaviors and benefits; and, build upon women owners’ ability to connect with their followers by sharing their goals and aspirations. Men owners may benefit by ensuring their employees know their business’ unique value proposition.Originality/valueThis research sought to link the identities of leader and gender to AL in the context of small businesses. It builds upon the AL theory of Avolio et al., (2004) and Jensen and Luthans (2006) who advocated using AL to study small businesses. This study determined whether business owners experienced interference between their gender and leader identities; II hindered the formation of AL and was an antecedent to AL; and the owner’s gender led to more or less AL and thus determined if leader gender moderated AL. The support for studying leader gender comes from role incongruity (Eagly and Diekman, 2005) and relational authenticity (Eagly, 2005; Kernis, 2003) which suggests that differences in how employees perceive AL may be a function of the owner’s gender. Added support comes from Jensen and Luthans (2006); they asked future studies to examine AL to determine the mechanisms behind gender differences in small businesses. Such research provides insight on the development of AL in theory and practice.

Leadership Effectiveness in IT-Centered Organizations: Gender and Levels of Management

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this paper is to investigate leadership effectiveness in IT-centered organizations giving attention to gender and levels of management. A seven-point scale instrument that measures leadership effectiveness (leading organization, leading people, leading self) was used to collect data. The participants (N = 197) were top, middle, and lower-level managers that used IT for organizations’ strategic, tactical, and operational activities. Collected data were analyzed using MANOVA. Results indicated no overall significant group differences for the levels of management with respect to the three leadership effectiveness groups. However, there were overall significant group differences for gender and the interaction of gender and levels of management. In all three leadership effectiveness groups (leading organization, leading people, leading self), women leaders scored significantly higher than men leaders did. Women also significantly scored higher on all levels of management than men did with respect to the three leadership effectiveness groups. These findings are interpreted, and implications are discussed.

Women Leaders and Spirituality

In addressing leadership, there are often two interlocking strands. One of these strands centers on thecontributions of leadership grounded in men's leadership experiences (Regan & Brooks, 1995). The secondinterlocking strand includes feminist attributes. This contributes to nuances of meaning that arise fromwomen's experiences of leadership. Regan and Brooks noted five attributes of leadership among women:collaboration, caring, courage, intuition, and vision. Often these attributes are embedded in firmly heldbeliefs which are at the heart of a notion of relational leadership. Over twenty years ago, Jaggar (1983)further emphasized that "feminist theory is at its best when it reflects the lived experiences of women, whenit bridges the gap between mind and body, reason, and emotion, thinking and feeling" (p. x).

A Quantitative Analysis of the Personal Characteristics and Workplace Experiences of Women and Men as Professional and Community Leaders

In the past, the subject of leadership in women has been confined to anecdotal figures who are remarkablefor their small numbers. Women leaders have emerged as a more common phenomenon in Americansociety in the last three decades, reflecting the transition in the status of women in society. According toDye and Strickland (1982), between 1970 and 1980, the total number of women managers andadministrators in the U.S. workforce increased over 100%. However, this change has not extendedthrough all levels of leadership. Hymowitz & Schellhardt found that by 1985 only 2.7% of the topexecutives and directors of AT&T were women and 8.3% and 15% of division and district managers werewomen. In contrast, 22% of second-level supervisors and 38.7% of first -level supervisors were women.The slow progress of women on this front has two possible explanations. One is "the glass ceiling," aterm that was coined in 1986 by Hymowitz and Schellhardt, two Wall Street Journal reporters. This is aninvisible barrier that blocks women from advancing to senior leadership positions in organizations. Analternative explanation to "the glass ceiling" might be a delay in the pipeline with appreciable numbers ofwomen only now reaching the point in their careers where senior positions are available.With increasing competition for leadership positions, women will likely encounter a growing number ofobstacles to promotion (Pipelines of Progress, An Update on the Glass Ceiling Initiative, 1992). In asurvey of female senior executives, one-third believed that the number of female executives in theircompanies would remain static or decrease (Business Week, June 8, 1992).In 1991, the author was a participant in a yearlong program run by a private, nonprofit organization forwomen professional and community leaders. Beginning that year, the author initiated a study of thesewomen.The goal of this study was to discern how factors of personal background and workplace experiencecompare in successful women and men leaders. It was then extrapolated that these factors might influencethe course of advancement for women leaders vis a vis men leaders.

A Content Analysis of the Leadership Styles of Steve Waugh and Sourav Ganguly: Leadership Lesson from the Game of Cricket

In this study, the researchers focus on the leadership styles of two of the game of Cricket’s most charismatic leaders of the twenty-first century – Steve Waugh of Australia and Sourav Ganguly of India in a bid to relate their styles with classic leadership theories. Both Waugh and Ganguly have been arguably recognized as the most successful cricket captains of their respective countries and have earned accolades from cricket pundits as brilliant leaders of men. In this study, a content analysis of the articles about these two legendary captains published in the highly-acclaimed Wisden almanac, electronic media such as Sportstar, Cricinfo Magazine and standard newspapers of India, Australia and other neutral countries was undertaken. The content analysis of eighty-seven articles spreading over a page length of 127 A-4 size papers revealed Waugh to be a more result-driven autocratic leader who led more by example, while Ganguly showed traits of a transformational leader who led by motivating his teammates. The study is expected to contribute to the existing body of leadership research with some new knowledge of the construct of leadership, which have been discussed at length in this paper.

Women and Leadership

Despite the proliferation of leadership research in the past 75 years, investigating the ways in which women and men leaders enact and experience leadership continues to surface unanswered questions. Through the framework of selection, development, leadership style, and performance, we report gender-related findings from a broad survey of existing literature from the past three decades. Findings include differential rates of selection for women and men leaders; leader development considerations that vary by gender; evidence in favor of general similarities in leadership style (with noted exceptions) between women and men leaders; and similar performance outcomes between women and men leaders. The importance of context, be it job type, group composition, organizational culture, or industry/sector, was also revealed. Implications for practitioners and academics alike are offered throughout this report.

Refusing to know a woman’s place: the causes and consequences of rejecting stereotypes of women politicians in the Americas

ABSTRACTWhat are the sources and effects of gendered leadership stereotypes for women’s representation? We explore the role of stereotypes in shaping public attitudes toward women’s representation using AmericasBarometer survey data from 25 countries. We report three key results. First, the modal respondent in almost every country rejects gendered leadership stereotypes, affirming that women and men leaders are equally qualified on corruption and the economy. This holds even after we attempt to account for social desirability bias. Second, there are significant individual- and country-level determinants of stereotyping. In countries with higher women’s representation and labor force participation but without gender quotas, citizens are more likely to choose pro-female and neutral responses over pro-male stereotypes. At the individual level, those rejecting stereotypes are less authoritarian, more supportive of labor market equality, and more leftist than those reporting pro-female stereotypes. Third, the consequences for representation vary by partisanship and country context. Pro-female leadership stereotypes boost support for women presidential candidates and for legislative gender quotas, but they matter less among copartisans of women candidates, and they matter more when women candidates are viable but gendered outsiders. Those rejecting leadership stereotypes altogether are less supportive of quotas.

Gender bias in communal leadership: examining servant leadership

Purpose– Theory suggests gender bias in leadership occurs through a cognitive mismatch between thoughts of women and leaders. As leadership incorporates more feminine qualities, gender bias disadvantaging women should be reduced. The purpose of this paper is to present an empirical investigation of that argument by examining gender bias in servant leadership. Predictions made by role congruity theory were investigated with principles from leader categorization theory.Design/methodology/approach– In a survey design, 201 working college students from the Midwest USA were presented with either a female or male leader, each with identical servant leader attributes. Participants reported their expectations for the leader’s future behavior.Findings– Expectations for servant leader behavior were greater for the woman than man leader, and expectations for authoritarian behavior were greater for the man than woman leader. Expectations for servant leader behavior were greater from the woman than man participants, and expectations for authoritarian behavior were greater from the man than woman participants, a difference that was enhanced by men’s hostile sexism.Research limitations/implications– Although limited by the sample of working students, important implications are the importance of using theoretical integration to examine contemporary forms of leadership for changing gender bias, considerations of self-concept in bias and examining perceiver characteristics when investigating gender bias.Practical implications– Awareness of the reduction of gender bias in communal leadership may allow an increase of leadership opportunities for women and leadership attempts by women.Originality/value– This is the first empirical examination of gender bias in communal leadership through theoretical integration.

Philosophers: The greatest teachers of the world

A teacher must always be a moral role model for his students, he must chaperone and lead them in good, and never leave them on their own in evil, and in order to be a leader of men, one must respect and love others (followers), he must be righteous and he must perseveringly care and invest every possible human effort into building his community. True teachers of their communities always serve other people, they place wellbeing of others before their own, striving to contribute to the common good. The profession of a teacher is a presupposition and a necessary basis for any other profession, because members of all, particularly socially most important professions, first gain foundations, ethical virtues and work capacities in the lowest, basic steps of education. People who do not understand the essence and the secret of life believe that one can be a genuine doctor, statesman, priest, judge and soldier even without elementary and primary knowledge, that knowledge and spiritual vertical can be upgraded without firm intellectual basis and good foundation of culture. Such a growth and development simply contradicts the very nature of life.

Refusing to Know a Woman's Place: The Causes and Consequences of Rejecting Stereotypes of Women Politicians in Latin America

What are the sources and effects of gendered leadership stereotypes for women’s representation? We explore the role of stereotypes in shaping public attitudes towards women’s representation using AmericasBarometer survey data from 25 countries. We report three key results. First, the modal respondent in almost every country rejects gendered leadership stereotypes, affirming that women and men leaders are equally qualified on corruption and the economy. This holds even after we attempt to account for social desirability bias. Second, there are significant individual- and country-level determinants of stereotyping. In countries with higher women’s representation and labor force participation but without gender quotas, citizens are more likely to choose pro-female and neutral responses over pro-male stereotypes. At the individual level, those rejecting stereotypes are less authoritarian, more supportive of labor market equality, and more leftist than those reporting pro-female stereotypes. Third, the consequences for representation vary by partisanship and country context. Pro-female leadership stereotypes boost support for women presidential candidates and for legislative gender quotas, but they matter less among copartisans of women candidates, and they matter more when women candidates are viable but gendered outsiders. Those rejecting leadership stereotypes altogether are less supportive of quotas.

The Leader-in-Social-Network Schema: Perceptions of Network Structure Affect Gendered Attributions of Charisma

Charisma is crucially important for a range of leadership outcomes. Charisma is also in the eye of the beholder—an attribute perceived by followers. Traditional leadership theory has tended to assume charismatic attributions flow to men rather than women. We challenge this assumption of an inevitable charismatic bias toward men leaders. We propose that gender-biased attributions about the charismatic leadership of men and women are facilitated by the operation of a leader-in-social-network schema. Attributions of charismatic leadership depend on the match between the gender of the leader and the perceived structure of the network. In three studies encompassing both experimental and survey data, we show that when team advice networks are perceived to be centralized around one or a few individuals, women leaders are seen as less charismatic than men leaders. However, when networks are perceived to be cohesive (many connections among individuals), it is men who suffer a charismatic leadership disadvantage relative to women. Perceptions of leadership depend not only on whether the leader is a man or a woman but also on the social network context in which the leader is embedded.

Mulheres líderes: as desigualdades de gênero, carreira e família nas organizações de trabalho

Este estudo tem como objetivo mostrar o caminho percorrido pelas mulheres líderes na organização onde trabalham, investigando as dificuldades e desafios enfrentados por elas para a concretização dos projetos pessoais e profissionais. Para o embasamento teórico foram definidos os tópicos: Diversidade na liderança, que aborda o emprego dos atributos de ambos os gêneros na gestão das empresas e carreira, trabalho e família, que apresenta as novas configurações familiares e as transformações econômicas e sociais ocorridas no âmbito do trabalho. Para a coleta dos dados foram realizadas entrevistas individuais com seis gestoras. A análise dos diálogos se deu por meio de quatro categorias: planejamento de carreira; trabalho e família; estilo de liderança e características da liderança de gênero do ponto de vista do líder homem. Finalmente, os dados apontaram que a construção e o sucesso na carreira implicam muito estudo, esforço e autodesenvolvimento. Elas vivem o conflito do equilíbrio do pessoal com o profissional e preocupam-se em desempenhar bem as várias figuras – mulher, mãe, esposa e gestora. Apresentam características de sensibilidade, flexibilidade e parceria no trabalho em equipe, sendo exigentes e objetivas quando a situação obriga. Verifica-se a necessidade de maior observação nos estilos de liderança, associados à dicotomia dos perfis de comportamento masculino e feminino de gerenciar.

How displaying empathic concern may differentially predict career derailment potential for women and men leaders in Australia

Past research notes the importance of emotions in the workplace. Much less is known about the role that empathic concern, an affect-laden construct, plays in predicting a leader's career advancement using measures of one's upward mobility, such as career derailment potential. Data provided by practicing managers in Australia show that leaders who displayed behaviors that convey empathic concern receive lower ratings of career derailment potential. We also found that gender was a statistically significant moderator of these relationships. With boss rating of derailment potential as the outcome, the negative relationship between empathic concern and derailment potential was statistically significant for women only. With peer ratings of derailment potential as the outcome, the negative relationship between empathic concern and derailment potential was stronger for women than men. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

When is female leadership an advantage? Coordination requirements, team cohesion, and team interaction norms

Summary This study seeks to understand to what extent and in what contexts women leaders may be advantageous for teams. More specifically, this study examines how team leader gender relates to team cohesion, cooperative learning, and participative communication. Furthermore, the study argues that advantages derived from female leadership may be contingent on teams' coordination requirements. I propose that as teams' coordination requirements increase (i.e., with functional diversity, size, and geographic dispersion), teams with women leaders report more cohesion and more cooperative and participative interaction norms than those with men leaders. I aggregated survey responses from the members of 82 teams in 29 organizations at the team level. Findings from hierarchical linear modeling analyses suggest that female leadership is more positively associated with cohesion on larger and more functionally diverse teams and more positively associated with cooperative learning and participative communication on larger and geographically dispersed teams. These results call for more research on boundary conditions on the relationship between leader gender and team outcomes, on the role of relational leadership on complex and diverse teams and, ultimately, on the potential mediating role of cohesion and team interaction norms on the relationship between leader gender and team performance. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Social Justice for Women from the Perspective of their Participation in Politics – Practice of Vietnam

Through desk review and indeep interviews with women and men leaders in Vietnam, this article argues that women’s polotical participation is an essential dimemsion of social equality througth three parts. The first part examines four theoretical frameworks, which are Gender and Development (GAD), Feminism on Gender equality, human right appoach, and sustainable development approach. The second part analyzes women’s political participation in Vietnam through current statistics. The article, then, deepens the current trends of women’s political participation in Vietnam by identifying influencing factors, both possitive and negative factors, of the current status of Vietnamese women in politics and public administration. Toward the ends, the article provides suggestions for having more women in leadership and management possitions and further study also is proposed. DOI: 10.5901/jesr.2015.v5n1p351

The Effects of Descriptive Associational Leadership on Civic Engagement: The Case of Clergy and Gender in Protestant Denominations

Given the attention that has been paid to the presence of women in leadership positions throughout the economy and society as well as the role that associations play in shaping citizen political participation, it is surprising that their confluence has not been systematically studied. What effect does men's versus women's associational leadership have on the political engagement of women and men members? Using a set of surveys drawn from Protestant denominations that ordain women as part of the 2001 U.S. Congregational Life Study, I investigate clergy gender effects on church leadership and political participation conditional on member gender using hierarchical models. Across four denominations, I find descriptive evidence but little systematic evidence supporting an effect due to clergy gender, though somewhat more evidence on church leadership than on political activity.

남성의 유행선도력에 따른 화장품 구매실태와 평가기준

The purpose of this study is to classify men's fashion leadership into groups and analyzed the differences for the actual conditions of cosmetics purchasing and evaluation criteria. Questionnaires are being administered from 163 men in their 20's and 30's living in Deagu Metropolitan City and Kyungbook. Frequency, factor analysis, reliability analysis, cluster analysis, ANOVA, Duncan-test, and <TEX>$X^2$</TEX>-test are all used for data analysis. Our findings are as follows. Men's fashion leadership is being categorized into fashion opinion leadership, innovative communicator and fashion innovator. Cosmetics evaluation criteria are service/aesthetic, ostentatious, function, and economy. Men's fashion leadership is classified into three groups: fashion laggards, fashion leaders, and fashion followers. Males show no significant differences in the function of cosmetics evaluation criteria by the groups but they show significances in service/aesthetic, ostentatious, and economy. Groups display distinctions between the sub-variables in the actual condition of cosmetics purchasing such the place of purchase, companionship when buying cosmetics, and average monthly purchase amount. Although the cosmetic markets for men show high average growth rates per year, cosmetic interests at the age of twenties and thirties are generally low, and cosmetics are not actively used. The customers' experience of using merchandise not only provide the opportunities of trying beforehand, but also lead to the role of information transfer, thus, it can be positively applied to active marketing. In addition, it can be expected that the low-priced cosmetic markets are guaranteed to obtain loyal customers through repurchasing and maintain long-term relationships by providing fashion followers with several promotional events.