Lead Pellets Research Articles

鉛中毒に罹患したハクチョウとマガンの治療

During the period from April to May 1990, 18 swans (Cygnus spp.) and 80 wild geese (Anser albifrons) were found emaciated or dead because of lead-poisoning caused by ingestion of lead shots at Lake Miyajima in Hokkaido. Twenty-seven wild geese, four Whooper Swans (C. cygnus cygnus), and two Bewick's swans (C. cygnus bewickii) were treated using disodium calcium ethylenediaminetetraacetate (CaEDTA). The concentration of blood lead at the time of admission averaged 4.6, ranging from 3.2 to 8.0μg/ml in swans, and averaged 5.6, ranging from 0.4 to 23.0μg/ml in wildgeese. In all of the swans 4 to 40 lead pellets, with an average of 17 were seen on radiographs of their gizzards. In 22 of the geese 1 to 48 lead pellets, with an average of 10.5 per bird, were seen. The blood lead levels decreased to about 1/2 to 1/5 of the initial values one week after the institution of the therapy in all the bird treated. Eleven of 27 birds recovered 3 to 8 weeks after the therapy. These lead shots were rapidly eroded as the birds recovered their appetite in re-sponse to the treatment and disappeared no radiographs during treatment days 17 to 52. Sixteen geese and all the swans failed to recover their apPetite and died within 4 weeks in spite of a decrease in the concentra-tion of blood lead.

EFFECTS OF LEAD SHOT INGESTION ON SELECTED CELLS OF THE MALLARD IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immunologic effects of lead were measured in game-farm mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) that ingested lead shot while foraging naturally, mallards intubated with lead shot, and unexposed controls. Circulating white blood cells (WBC) declined significantly in male mallards exposed to lead by either natural ingestion or intubation, but not females. Spleen plaque-forming cell (SPFC) counts were significantly lower in mallards intubated with lead pellets compared to controls. Declines in WBC and SPFC means with increasing tissue lead concentrations provide further evidence that lead exposure reduced immunologic cell numbers. Hormonal activity and diet may have influenced the immunologic effects of lead exposure in this study.

Symptomatic Lead Toxicity Secondary to Retained Shotgun Pellets: Case Report

Symptomatic lead toxicity has only rarely been associated with retention of foreign bodies. Recently a patient was seen who had sustained a shotgun wound to the left upper extremity 10 years previously without apparent nerve injury at the time of injury. The patient was asymptomatic for 9 years. During the tenth year, classic symptoms of lead toxicity, as well as increased blood levels, were documented. Removal of the majority of the lead pellets resulted in substantial decrease in the serum lead level and improvement of symptoms.

Lead-Poisoning in Magpie Geese Anseranas-Semipalmata From Ingested Lead Pellet at Bool-Lagoon-Game-Reserve (South-Australia)

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Lead-Shot Ingestion by Bald Eagles in Western Arkansas

A study was conducted on Holla Bend National Wildlife Refuge, in western Arkansas, to determine the extent to which bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) wintering on the area were exposed to lead shot. Waterfowl comprised a significant portion of the diet; 61% of egested bald eagle castings contained waterfowl remains. Lead shot was found in 9 of 31 waterfowl carcasses that provide much of the winter food supply of bald eagles on the refuge. Lead shot was found in 7% of 82 egested castings, indicating that eagles do ingest lead shot in the process of feeding. In recent years, a great deal of interest has been directed toward lead-poisoning as a mortality factor among bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus; Pattee and Hennes, 1983; Feierabend and Myers, 1984). It has long been recognized that large numbers of waterfowl succumb annually to lead (Bellrose, 1975). How- ever, only recently has there been an attempt to compile and analyze information on the extent to which lead may affect bald eagles feeding on dead or crippled waterfowl. Feierabend and Myers (1984) reported that: 1) a growing body of evidence suggests that significant numbers of bald eagles die annually from lead- poisoning; 2) a minimum of 77 bald eagles died of lead-poisoning between 1966 and 1984; and 3) these data probably under-estimated the actual extent of the problem as most eagle carcasses are never recovered. Bald eagles are particularly vulnerable because population levels are low and because they readily feed on dead or crippled prey, particularly waterfowl (Pattee and Hennes, 1983). Arkansas is one of 27 states with documented cases of bald eagle mortality due to lead poisoning (Feierabend and Myers, 1984). Holla Bend National Wildlife Refuge, Pope Co., Arkansas, is a major wintering area for bald eagles and waterfowl and has had documented cases of lead poisoning in waterfowl. Therefore, the report by Feierabend and Myers (1984) listed Pope Co. as one of 89 counties nationwide where there is a high risk of bald eagles being poisoned by lead after ingesting lead pellets present in dead or crippled waterfowl. While there was a clear potential for poisoning of eagles wintering on Holla Bend, no quantitative data were available for assessing the extent to which eagles were actually exposed to lead shot. This report summarizes the results of a study conducted on Holla Bend during the winter of 1985-1986 to evaluate the extent to which wintering bald eagles were exposed to lead shot. The objectives of the study were to: 1) determine the frequency of occurrence of waterfowl in the diet of wintering bald eagles using the area; 2) evaluate the extent of lead shot in waterfowl carcasses on the area; and 3) determine the frequency of occurrence of lead shot in egested castings produced by bald eagles using Holla Bend.

Common carotid artery injury from an airgun pellet

A Id-year-old boy was hit in the left side of the neck by an airgun pellet while playing. The missile was aimed directly at him from a distance of approximately 9m. He experienced a moderately sharp pain in the left side of the neck and complained of slight swelling. Blood loss was minimal and soon controlled by a first-aid dressing. On admission to hospital z h after the injury, he was well and fully alert with no evidence of blood loss. On the left side of the neck, just anterior to the stemocleidomastoid muscle exactly midway along the muscle belly, was a small entry wound measuring 0.5 an in diameter. This was surrounded by a soft nonpulsatile haematoma, measuring 4 x 3 cm. No bruit was audible. Both superficial temporal arteries were palpable with possibly some diminution on the left side. The pellet was not palpable but plain films confirmed the presence of a foreign body within the soft tissues, anterior to the U-C5 intervertebral disc space (Fig. 1). It was decided to observe his progress. Antitetanus toxoid was given and intravenous cefuroxime started. On review of his radiographs 12 h later, it was considered appropriate to explore the left side of the neck, mainly with a view to extracting the lead pellet.

X-Ray and Visual Detection of Shot in Waterfowl Gizzards and Marsh Substrate

X-Ray and Visual Detection of Shot in Waterfowl Gizzards and Marsh Substrate

Lead poisoning in swans and sources of contamination in Ireland

A study of blood levels in mute swans Cygnus olor in Ireland has revealed that ingested lead pellets are responsible for acute lead poisoning. Forty‐two percent of blood samples from 890 live birds at one site showed elevated lead levels. X‐ray examination of live birds revealed the source of contamination to be ingested lead pellets. Urban birds were shown to have higher (P 0001) lead levels than rural birds, the blood lead levels of which were presumed to reflect natural background levels. Urban grass was shown to have elevated lead but this did not cause lead poisoning in Canada geese Branta canadensis. Post‐mortem examination has shown that 68% (n= 101) of all mute swans examined from a number of sites died from lead poisoning. Two sources of poisoning were identified; spent gunshot from a claypigeon shooting site at Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland, and lost or discarded anglers' weights at Cork Lough and at a fishing pond in Belfast, N.I. The first known case of lead poisoning in whooper swans Cygnus cygnus in Ireland is recorded which resulted from the ingestion of gunshot used almost two decades earlier. Aspects of the pathology of lead poisoned swans is discussed.

Lead Pellets

Lead Pellets

It's Wonderful Here at Little Riding

It's hotter than we expected, our bodies coated with a gelatin that makes each caress, each laugh, exactly what was going to happen. A feather spins down, and pigeons spur dirt around themselves in the gravel. Hunters arrive, boots pasty with forest, and we all have drinks, the bitter green in the traditional, tiny cups. The stained glass is missing a section, a white sandwich wrapping in a burgundy field, and one afternoon an earth-moving machine rolls a great, spiky tube. We touch the holes it leaves that evening, punctures the shape of peaked roofs sucked into earth. The next day it rains, blank rain too cold to do anything but watch, and the photo album is missing the snapshots of the uncle who killed. One morning workmen masked like people gathering dead rake the smoking deer grass, and the stains in the ceiling are the shapes of animals who would be feeding in the early morning, if there were no fire. And when we at last discover what we expected, a lead pellet in the thigh of a squab, it is a relief, as a syringe is a relief, and it didn't hurt at all, and it's over -and it isn't. There is the fever, and the bad night, the rest of life prevented from a kind of death.

The incidence of lead poisoning among whooper and mute swans Cygnus cygnus and C. olor in Scotland

A number of incidents were reported between 1980 and 1986 involving the deaths of substantial numbers of whooper swans Cygnus cygnus in Scotland. Post-mortem examinations identified this to be due to lead poisoning in 47% of these cases. Gizzard contents indicated that most of the lead came from shotgun pellets. In contrast, examinations of mute swans Cygnus olor found dead in Scotland over the same time interval indicate that only 13% died of lead poisoning, and most of these were isolated birds from a wide variety of locations. Mean lead levels in kidney tissue of poisoned whoopers was 223 μg g −1 dry weight compared to 661·9 μg g −1 dry weight in mutes; both these values were considerably lower than the values recorded among poisoned mutes in England. Blood lead levels in whoopers in Iceland had a median value of 31 μg 100 ml −1 compared to 48 μg 100 ml −1 in Scotland, indicating that the lead was being ingested in their wintering grounds in Scotland. The median blood level in Scottish mute swans was 52 μg 100 ml −1. Both of these values from Scotland are high when compared to the ‘maximum acceptable level’ of 40 μg 100 ml −1 suggested by Birkhead (1983). Differences in feeding location, diet, and requirements for grit between whoopers and mutes are considered responsible for different levels of exposure to lead in the environment, and susceptibility to poisoning. Two sites in NE Scotland have been identified as having densities of lead pellets high enough to be potentially dangerous to waterfowl. Both of the sites can be associated with high-intensity shooting and are used frequently by swans for gritting. The relatively low incidence of split shot in poisoned swans in Scotland, compared to the situation in England, is thought to reflect the tackle and techniques of game-fishing rather than coarse fishing in Scotland.

Incidence of Shot in Heavily Hunted Marsh Areas in Eastern Kansas

Substrate samples from heavily hunted locations in three eastern Kansas marshes were analyzed radiographically for shotgun pellets during 1984. Pellet densities ranged from 0 to 51.4/m2 (0 to 514,000/ha), similar to data from surveys conducted in heavily hunted marshes in Minnesota, Illinois, and Missouri. Annual cultivation appeared to reduce the availability of shot in the upper 12 cm of marsh sediment and may be a means of reducing lead poisoning problems where lead shot contamination is high. Lead shotgun pellets are deposited on the bottoms of wetlands across North America by waterfowl hunters. It is estimated that as much as 2.7 million kg of spent pellets are deposited in lakes and marshes in the United States annually (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1976). Spent lead pellets are ingested by waterfowl and ground down in the gizzard, the lead is then absorbed, and death may result. Waterfowl deaths from lead poisoning have been recorded since the late 1800's (Phillips and Lincoln, 1930) and may account for an annual loss of 2 to 3% of the North American waterfowl population (Bellrose, 1959). Beginning in 1986, all waterfowl hunting on federal land must be done with nontoxic steel shot. Waterfowl hunting on numerous state-owned lands also requires the use of steel shot. However, lead shot in wetlands may remain available to feeding waterfowl for many years, depending on settling and/or siltation rates (Bellrose, 1959; Wycoff et al., 1971). Very little data exist on density of lead shot in Kansas marshes. This study was initiated in 1984 to determine the concentrations of lead shot in heavily hunted areas of marshes in eastern Kansas. I Present address: Comparative Toxicology Laboratories, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506. This content downloaded from 207.46.13.28 on Tue, 30 Aug 2016 04:58:18 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms VOLUME 90, NUMBERS 3-4 139

Lead fragments in tissues from wild birds: A cause of misleading analytical results

Seriously damaged eider ducks ( Somateria mollissima) and long-tailed ducks ( Clangula hyemalis) were shot in connection with an oil spill in 1974. Liver and kidney tissues were analyzed for environmental pollutants and lead analysis gave irreproducible results. By means of X-ray photographs, X-ray-dense particles could be observed in the tissues. The foreign particles were extracted by dissolution of the organ tissues in Soluene-350 (Packard Instruments Co. Inc) and then washed with toluene. The insoluble particles consisted of lead and bone splinters of varying size. The form of the former ranged from irregular fragments to dust, and arose by disruption of lead pellets upon collision with bone tissue. Birds shot with lead pellets should not be used for lead determination unless careful X-ray investigations are made prior to the chemical analysis. Determinations should be made on at least two different samples of the tissue examined.

Ultrasound examination of foreign bodies. An in vitro investigation.

Ultrasound examination of foreign bodies most frequently encountered in the human body was performed when they were contained within a transmission medium acoustically resembling human soft tissues. All the foreign bodies evaluated (lead and plastic pellets, pieces of wire, nails, needles, small fragments of rock and glass, wooden slivers, surgical sponges and surgical threads) were detectable with ultrasound. Strong echoes were reflected from their surface when they were positioned favourably, although in some positions the echoes from a needle, fragment of glass, wooden silver, or surgical thread could not be distinguished from those of the surroundings. Acoustic shadows were also seen behind the foreign bodies. A striking column of reverberation echoes was demonstrated behind lead pellets and nails while behind a glass plate there was an acoustic shadow that was often difficult to detect because it was concealed by a mirror image. With modern grey-scale real-time equipment it is possible to demonstrate objects from various angles, a fact which should facilitate the detection of foreign bodies in vivo circumstances.

Energy requirements for the penetration of heads of domestic stock and the development of a multiple projectile.

The forces and kinetic energy required to penetrate the isolated heads of calves, adult beef cattle, sheep and red deer with a metal probe the same diameter as the bore of an experimental pistol were determined. Approximately 16 and 127 Joules were required to penetrate the heads of adult sheep and cattle, respectively. Using these data a 10 g projectile, consisting of 49 lead pellets and a lead disc in a polyethylene sleeve, was constructed. This projectile, when fired by a charge sufficient to produce a muzzle velocity of 165 m/second, had sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate the heads and brains of cattle, sheep, horses and deer. The projectile was fired from a new design of humane killer with a spring loaded barrel and fitted with a silencer. After penetration of the frontal bones the projectile fragmented and the kinetic energy of its individual particles were insufficient for them to penetrate the opposite side of the head of any of the animals, including one-week-old calves. Fragmentation also caused more brain damage and inhibition of spinal reflexes than a solid free bullet or captive bolt. It is suggested that the use of such a projectile for the emergency slaughter of animals is less hazardous than a solid free bullet and is easier to use and more effective than either a solid free bullet or captive bolt. The projectile was not suitable for killing adult pigs because of problems associated with the frontal sinus.

Lead exposure from lead pellets: Age-related accumulation in mute swans

In a cross-sectional study of adult swans and their successfully fledged young in Ringkøbing Fjord, West Jutland, Denmark, 128 venous blood samples were taken during the moulting period and analyzed for lead. While the juveniles generally showed blood lead levels below 15 μg/100 ml (median, 11 μg/100ml), the values were significantly higher in adults (median, 25 μg/100 ml). Adult females showed slightly higher levels than did adult males. None of the birds examined showed signs of acute lead toxicity, and increased blood levels in adults may reflect increased lead body burdens from previous ingestion of lead shot as gizzard stones.

Densities and settlement rates of spent shotgun pellets in British wetland soils

The densities of spent lead pellets in the top 15 cm of wetland soils were examined by core sampling at twenty-two sites in nine areas of Britain. No pellets were detected at three sites. Elsewhere estimated densities ranged from 2·04 pellets per square metre (20 388 pellets per hectare) to 30·0 pellets per square metre (300 000 per hectare). The highest densities were recorded at two flight ponds, one in Norfolk and one in Gloucestershire, and at the Ouse Washes. Most pellets (63·4%) were recovered from the top 5 cm of sediment. This distribution, together with the absence of marked seasonal changes in the density or depth distribution of pellets, lead to the conclusion that at many wildfowling sites there is a net near-surface accumulation of pellets from year to year. Pellet settlement experiments revealed a very slow rate of pellet movement in five out of six study plots. In four of these the majority of pellets were still in the top 2 cm of soil after nine months. Settlement was more rapid at a sixth plot where some pellets (4·3%) had reached the 8–10 cm band by this time.

The incidence and significance of ingested lead pellet poisoning in British Wildfowl

The objective of this study was to assess the extent of lead pellet ingestion by British wildfowl, particularly ducks and geese, and to examine regional variations. The gizzard contents of 2445 shot and 238 found-dead birds were examined, and lead concentrations were determined for 1620 liver and 1841 wing bone samples. In addition, X-ray photographs and blood samples were taken from live-caught birds. Ingested lead pellets were found in 3·2% of the birds examined. For a range of species, including pink-footed goose, white-fronted goose, barnacle goose, wigeon, teal, pintail, shoveler, scaup and moorhen, recorded incidences were either very low or zero. Relatively high incidences were noted for swans, greylag goose (7·1% of shot birds), gadwall (11·8%), mallard (4·2%), pochard (10·9%), tufted duck (11·7%) and goldeneye (6·7%). Most ingested pellets originated from shotguns, though anglers' split shot were found in one pochard and four mute swans. A marked seasonal variation in the extent of pellet ingestion was noted for mallard, with a peak in September, and evidence of high levels immediately before and after the shooting season. Pellet ingestion by mallard was found to be of widespread occurrence, though with considerable variation in recorded incidence from place to place. Inland areas tended to be worse, with the highest incidences recorded for birds shot at flight ponds and other freshwater bodies. Six per cent of mallard shot at inland sites contained ingested pellets, compared with 2·6% of those collected from coastal areas. The observed extent of pellet ingestion in British mallard is calculated directly to cause the death of at least 8000 each winter. Some measures that could be taken to alleviate the lead-poisoning problem in Britain are discussed, and progress of the USA's non-toxic pellet programme is examined.

Birdshooting, lead pellets, and grazing cattle.

Blood samples from cattle grazing near an area of intense birdshooting were analyzed for lead by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. No difference in lead blood levels could be demonstrated between heifers in the birdshooting pasture and the control heifers, not even during the dry summer of 1981 when there was little grass, which should have facilitated the uptake of lead pellets deposited on the ground. On the basis of blood values found, even the most intensive birdshooting seems to have little effect on the lead levels in cattle in the area. (JMT)

Differentiated perceptions of exertion and energy cost of young women while carrying loads.

Differentiated local ratings of perceived exertion from the legs and central ratings from the chest, and oxygen consumption, were determined during load carriage in seven young women. Subjects walked for 6 min at 3.22, 4.83, 6.44, or 8.05 km X h-1 carrying (1) no load, (2) a load equal to 7.5% of body weight (mean: 4.66 kg) or (3) a load equal to 15% of body weight (mean: 9.32 kg). Thus, each subject underwent 12 separate tests. The external loads were in the form of lead pellets carried in a plastic scuba belt worn around the waist. A differentiation threshold was found at 6.44 km X h-1 for the 0% and 7.5% loads and at 4.83 km X h-1 for the 15% load. At speeds below the threshold, the perception of exertion was similar in the legs, chest and overall. At higher speeds, exertion was perceived to be more intense in the legs than overall and less intense in the chest than overall, suggesting that the local legs signal was the dominant factor in shaping the overall sensation of exertion. The oxygen uptake was greater for the 15% load than for either the 0% or 7.5% loads, but was similar for the 0% and 7.5% loads. Findings suggested a critical weight limit for external loads that could be transported without increasing the metabolic cost beyond that required to move the body weight alone. This limit fell between 7.5% and 15% of the body weight. When oxygen uptake was expressed per kg of total weight transported, there was no loss of metabolic efficiency while carrying loads up to 15% of the body weight.