Lead Isotope Analysis Research Articles

Constellations of practice in copper ingots from Zambia and northern Zimbabwe, cal. AD 500–1700

ABSTRACT Rectangular, fishtail and croisette copper ingots have been found in many locations in Central and southern Africa where excavated samples date to between the fifth and eighteenth centuries cal. AD. For more than fifty years, scholars have debated whether these ingots were all made in the Central African Copperbelt, where there are many finds of matching moulds, or if moulds found in Zimbabwe show that copies were produced locally. Lead isotopic and chemical analyses have recently confirmed that the Copperbelt supplied copper ingots to both southern Congo-Kinshasa and the Zimbabwe Plateau between the ninth and eighteenth centuries, but that one HXR ingot can tentatively be sourced to the Magondi Belt copper deposits in northern Zimbabwe. We expand this discussion here by linking ingot chemistry and isotopic provenance with distribution patterns and ingot morphologies. The combined evidence suggests that groups making Luangwa Tradition pottery were responsible for transporting HIH and HXR ingots, and the technological styles for making them, far to the south of the Copperbelt. These croisette ingots link constellations of practice in the Copperbelt and Zimbabwe, possibly through the movement of specialised traders and metalworkers. We identify some of the individuals buried at Ingombe Ilede and Chumnungwa as possible examples of these specialists.

Composition, raw material provenance, and manufacture of a unique late Roman silver folding stand (quadripus) from Kőszárhegy, Hungary

The late Roman silver quadripus from Kőszárhegy (Fejér County, Hungary) is the only known silver folding stand from the Late Roman Imperial Age, dated to the fourth century AD. Archaeological evidence indicates that the quadripus is closely related to the Seuso Treasure. Elemental composition and lead isotope analyses of samples taken from the various parts of the folding stand were performed by using LA-QICP-MS and MC-ICP-MS methods in order to determine the provenance of raw material used and the production technology. The silver quadripus consists of rather pure silver (92.5–96.5%) intentionally alloyed with copper. The different trace element composition (Bi, Au, Pb) of the various parts (base, lower part, griffin, upper part, finial, cross bands) indicates the use of different silver batches implying that the various parts were made separately, and then soldered together with hard solders. The same parts of the two original feet are very similar regarding their elemental composition and lead isotope ratios suggesting series production. The nearly constant gold and lead contents of the object indicate that not re-used or re-melted, but primary, cupelled silver was used for manufacturing. The lead isotope ratios of the quadripus cover a quite narrow range (206Pb/204Pb = 18.514–18.717; 207Pb/204Pb = 15.645–15.667; 208Pb/204Pb = 38.592–38.817). Comparing our results to the lead isotope data of the European lead-silver ores, and taking into consideration the archaeological evidences, the silver used for manufacturing the quadripus could come from the Balkan region.

Analysis on the Distribution Characteristics and Influence Mechanism of Migration and Transformation of Heavy Metals in Mining Wasteland

In order to explore the distribution characteristics and the influence mechanism of migration and transformation of heavy metals in mining wasteland, soil and tailings samples were collected from the mining wasteland in the Dabaoshan Mining area, Guangdong Province, and the morphological characteristics of heavy metals were analyzed. At the same time, the pollution sources of the mining area were analyzed using Pb stable isotope analysis, and the characteristics and influencing factors of heavy metal migration and transformation in the mining area were expounded by combining X-ray diffraction analysis, transmission electron microscope-energy spectrum analysis (TEM-EDS), and Raman analysis of typical minerals in the mining area, as well as laboratory-simulated leaching experiments. Morphological analysis showed that the forms of Cd, Pb, and As in the soil and tailings samples in the mining area were mainly the residual phase, accounting for 85%-95% of the total, followed by the iron and manganese oxide-bound form (1%-15%). The main mineral types in the soil and tailings in the Dabaoshan Mining area were pyrite (FeS2), chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), and metal oxides, as well as a small amount of sphalerite (ZnS) and galena (PbS). Acidic conditions (pH=3.0) were beneficial to the release and migration of Cd and Pb from soil, tailings, and minerals (pyrite, chalcopyrite) and from the residual phase to the non-residual phase. Lead isotope analysis showed that the lead in the soil and tailings mainly came from the release of metal minerals in the mining area, and the contribution of diesel in the mining area was less than 30%. Multivariate statistical analysis showed that Pyrite, Chalcopyrite, Sphalerite, and Metal oxide were the main sources of heavy metals in the soil and tailings in the mining area, in which Cd, As, and Pb were mainly contributed by sphalerite and metal oxide. The form change in heavy metals in the mining wasteland was easily affected by environmental factors. The form characteristics and migration and transformation factors of heavy metals should be considered in the source control of heavy metal pollution in mining wasteland.

Spartan dependence on Laurion lead

AbstractThis article presents contextual evidence for the interpretation of lead isotope analysis (LIA) of artefacts from the Archaic Greek Mediterranean. In particular, I make a response to Wood’s suggestion in Archaeometry (2022, first view, ‘Other ways to examine the finances behind the birth of Classical Greece’) that the end of the production of lead votive figurines in Sparta might have been caused by Athenian restrictions to Laurion lead exports, drawing on new LIA of the Spartan lead votives and wider considerations concerning the trade, cost and volume of lead in the 7th to 5th century bce Mediterranean.

The origin of Neolithic copper on the central Northern European plain and in Southern Scandinavia: Connectivities on a European scale.

The production, distribution and use of copper objects and the development of metallurgical skills in Neolithic Northern Central Europe and Southern Scandinavia are linked to early centres of copper metallurgy of South East Central Europe and Southeast Europe. A total of 45 Neolithic copper objects, until now the largest sample of Early Neolithic objects from the Northern Central European Plain and Southern Scandinavia, were selected for new lead isotope analyses. They aided in the identification of the origin of the copper: These new analyses indicate that the copper ore deposits in Southeastern Europe, especially from the Serbian mining areas, were used for the Early Neolithic northern artefacts (ca. 4100-3300 BC). The most likely sources of copper for the few Middle Neolithic artefacts (ca. 3300-2800 BC) seem to be from the Slovak Ore Mountains, the Serbian mining areas and the Eastern Alps, whereas deposits of the Slovak Ore Mountains and the Alpine region were used for the Late Neolithic and the Early Bronze Age (ca. 2300-1700 BC) artefacts. For the artefacts dated after 2000 BC, the Great Orme mine in Wales also appears to have been the source of copper for the analysed metals. The use of copper from different regions of Europe probably reflects changing social and cultural connectivities on a European scale and the changing chronology of copper exploitation.

Effects of atmospheric deposition on heavy metals accumulation in agricultural soils: Evidence from field monitoring and Pb isotope analysis

Atmospheric deposition is an essential pathway of heavy metals (HMs) from the atmosphere to soils, while few studies assess the effects and contributions of atmospheric deposition on HMs accumulations in agricultural soils from the field and regional scales. In this study, eleven representative field monitoring sites from industrial areas, agricultural areas, and reference site in a typical rapid industrial development region were selected to determine the effects of atmospheric deposition on soil HMs accumulation. Industrial activities significantly increased the deposited particles flux from atmospheric deposition, with annual particles fluxes in industrial areas being 1.83 and 1.90 times higher than in agricultural areas and reference site, respectively. Although the HMs deposition fluxes had decreased significantly with time by literature comparison, the deposition fluxes of Cd and Pb were still at high levels in this study area. Precipitation was the key factor affecting seasonal variations of atmospheric HMs deposition. Lead isotope analysis indicated that atmospheric Pb originated from coal combustion, and atmospheric deposition was the primary source of Pb contamination in agricultural soil adjacent to industries. This study provided insight into the effects of atmospheric deposition on agricultural soil HMs accumulations at the regional scale and an important theoretical basis for source-preventing soil HMs contamination in industrial developed and other similar areas.

A complex case of trade in metals: The origin of copper used for artefacts found in one hoard from a Late Bronze Age Lusatian Urnfield Culture in Poland

Metal artefacts from Bronze Age hoards have routinely been used to study interregional contacts. Their stylistic and typological features helped distinguish local products and imports by appearance. In the last 40 years, combined lead isotope and chemical analyses of metals have been widely applied to verify hypotheses based on style and typology. This paper is a comprehensive typological and analytical study of a metal item hoard discovered in Paszowice, SW Poland. In the Bronze Age, the area was inhabited by the Lusatian Urnfield culture (ca. 1350/1300–800/750 BC) communities. We expected that at least some of the artefacts would be local products fashioned according to foreign stylistic patterns. The research aimed to determine whether a ‘classical’ stylistic analysis combined with provenance studies of metals would allow more decisive conclusions. This combination of methods could also show how the metal reached the Lusatian Urnfield culture settlement zone. We conducted a detailed typological and chronological analysis to map the distribution of similar artefact types. It demonstrated that stylistic matches for the artefacts from Paszowice occur mainly in NE Hungary, S Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Romania. Selected metal artefacts (both tin bronze items and raw copper objects) from Paszowice were also analysed for their chemical (EPMA) and lead isotope (MC ICP MS) compositions. The study revealed many copper sources used for their production, ranging from the nearest copper mines in the Slovak Ore Mountains, through Eastern Alps and mines in Sardinia, to possibly the Iberian Peninsula. In this way, we identified the potential trade routes by which metal could get to SW Poland: the southwestern and southeastern routes and the Mediterranean-Danube route. The Iberian metal might have also reached the study area from the north – through its redistribution by Scandinavian traders. Our results show that metal from many sources circulated in central Europe during the Late Bronze Age. The Lusatian Urnfield communities were part of a pan-European exchange network and maintained extensive long-distance contacts, allowing metal acquisition from various sources.

Reconstructing the geological provenance and long-distance movement of rectangular, fishtail, and croisette copper ingots in Iron Age Zambia and Zimbabwe.

The southern third of Africa is unusually rich in copper ore deposits. These were exploited by precolonial populations to manufacture wound-wire bangles, other forms of jewelry, and large copper ingots that were used as stores of copper or as forms of prestige. Rectangular, fishtail, and croisette ingots dating between the 5th and 20th centuries CE have been found in many locations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with isolated finds in Malawi and Mozambique. Molds for casting these ingots have been found mostly in the Central African Copperbelt, but also around the Magondi Belt copper deposits in northern Zimbabwe. For years, scholars have debated whether these ingots were exclusively made in the Copperbelt or if the molds found in Zimbabwe indicate that local copies were produced from Magondi Belt copper ore (Garlake 1970; Bisson 1976). Before the recent application of lead isotopic and chemical methods to provenance copper in central and southern Africa, there was no way to discern between these hypotheses. Rademakers et al. (2019) and Stephens et al. (2020) showed that copper artifacts from southern DRC (mostly from Upemba) and from northwestern Botswana (Tsodilo Hills) match the lead isotope ratios of ores from the Copperbelt. Building upon these previous studies, we present here the first results from a copper provenance project across the southern third of Africa, from the Copperbelt to northern South Africa. We apply lead isotopic analysis (LIA) and chemical analyses to establish the provenance of 29 croisette ingots recovered in Zimbabwe, 2 fishtail and 1 rectangular ingot recovered from sites in Zambia, and an "X" shaped ingot smelted in an experiment in Zambia in the 1970's. Our chemistry and lead isotopic results indicate that 16 of these objects were smelted with copper from the Copperbelt, 16 objects source more specifically to the Kipushi deposit within this geological district, and only one HXR ingot sources to the Magondi Belt in Zimbabwe. Taken together, we clearly illustrate that croisette ingots were traveling significant distances to reach their eventual sites of deposition, and that there was also local production of these objects in Zimbabwe.

Counterfeiting activities during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) revealed by the special alloy coins in the Chenzhou hoard, Hunan, China

Kaiyuan Tongbao coin was the primary circulation currency during the Tang Dynasty. It defined the Chinese coinage model for over a thousand years afterward. Despite repeated government prohibition, coin counterfeiting prevailed through Tang Dynasty. Such activities resulted in a large amount of counterfeit coins entering the market, which undermined economy and led to social instability. However, as a key to exploring the issue of counterfeiting, information on the alloy composition, provenance and the production mode of the counterfeit coins are not yet clear. This paper presents the first comprehensive scientific study on counterfeit coins from a hoard in Hunan Province in South China (a total of 39 kg and approximately 8000 coins were found). Radiocarbon dating of the bamboo weaving wrapped coins indicated that the hoard dated from 668 to 874 CE (Tang Dynasty). Chemical composition analysis, morphological and metallographic images and lead isotope analysis of 78 hoarded Kaiyuan Tongbao coins had been obtained. Combined with historical records, ore materials probably originated from the local Huangshaping and Baoshan polymetallic deposits in the Nanling metallogenic belt in South China. Results showed that there were 16 types of alloy materials, primarily cast alloys of the Cu-Fe-As system. Most of the coins were minted using a Cu-Pb syngenetic ore rich in many elements from Fe, As, Sb, and Sn. One discovery is the utilizing of a by-product of local ore smelting which was called the speiss. The hoard coins studied in this paper provide the first evidence of the use of speiss for coinage in ancient China. Such material sources and manufacture technique made convenience for coin counterfeiting, which explains repeated failures of central government’s attempts to eliminate coin counterfeiting, especially for those mining areas.

From diversity to monopoly: major economic policy change in the Western Han Dynasty revealed by lead isotopic analysis

From diversity to monopoly: major economic policy change in the Western Han Dynasty revealed by lead isotopic analysis

Low-cost and sensitive method for Pb isotope determination using a novel β-Si3N4 emitter by thermal ionization mass spectrometry

Thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) is the workhorse for lead isotopic ratio analysis due to its excellent precision. Silica gel as ionization activator on Re filament is proved to the best emitter that can provide excellent sensitivity even small Pb sample size. However, the price of Re filament is three times that of Ta filament that leads to high experimental cost for TIMS laboratory. Here, we first present a novel silicon nitride (β-Si3N4) emitter on the Ta filament with good sensitivity for Pb isotopic ratio measurements. Hence, the cost of filament material is cut down ∼70%. The β-Si3N4 emitter can yield stable and long-life Pb+ signal, about 2–3 V 208Pb and 0.65–0.90 V 208Pb for 20 ng and 5 ng NIST SRM981 sample size that is applicable to the most geological materials for bulk analysis. A suite of silicate reference materials were analyzed to verify the reliability and accuracy of our method. For 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb isotope ratios of geological samples, excellent internal precisions (2 SE) of ±0.005%–0.013% are achieved. Replicate digestions and analyses of the basalt standard BCR-2 and coal fly ash standard GBW08401 demonstrate that good external precision is obtainable that is 0.10–0.18% (n = 6, 2 SD) for 206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb ratios.

Analysis of Lead Smelting Technology in the Early Bronze Age Based on Smelting Slag from the Central Plains of China

To explore the source of Pb in Bronze Age artefacts from the Central Plains (Zhongyuan) in China, we investigated non-ferrous minerals from the Qingyuan archaeological site in Yuanqu County near the Zhongtiao Mountains. Fragments of smelting slag from the Erlitou cultural layer were collected. The smelting slag was investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and lead isotope analysis. The SEM and EDS results confirmed that the slag contained Pb, Pb–As, and Cu–Pb–Sn inclusions and non-metal impurities such as low-Zn spinels. The XRD results signified that the bulk of the slag comprised Fe–Mn–Si phases. The chemical state of Pb was mainly Pb–O with some metallic Pb, as identified by XPS. The theoretical melting point was calculated using FactSage7.1 based on the composition and phase characterisation. The calculated temperature was 1100–1200 °C, which agreed well with the actual melting point of 1114–1354 °C. The slag composition and inclusion phases indicated that Pb–Zn–O ores with Mn and As were added during reduction smelting in Qingyuan. The raw materials of smelting included crude Pb with minor amounts of Cu, As, and Sn. Lead isotope analysis revealed that the lead materials produced in Qingyuan were likely transferred to Yanshi City in the Shang Dynasty. The findings of this study provide significant clues for exploring lead mineral production in the Central Plains during the Early Bronze Age.

Investigating the origins of metals used in the Early Shang capital of Zhengzhou

Lead isotope analysis of crucibles and a metal droplet has revealed new information about the provenance of the lead and copper resources used at Zhengzhou Shang City during the Upper Erligang period. The crucibles were found to be divided into three types and associated with copper smelting/refining, leaded tin bronze alloying, and bronze pouring. The copper smelting/refining crucible contains common lead (206Pb/204Pb = 18.12) and low Pb content in its slag layer. In contrast, the bronze processing crucibles mostly contained highly radiogenic lead (206Pb/204Pb ≥ 19). One bronze pouring crucible was found to have an exceptionally low 206Pb/204Pb ratio (≤17.2), indicating that it was made with recycled bronze from an earlier period. This research is the first to reveal the lead isotope characteristics of the copper material used during the Upper Erligang period, which is strikingly different from the dominant highly radiogenic lead reported in previous research. The Middle Yangtze River Valley is tentatively proposed as the geological source. This result also shows that the Upper Erligang Shang people had a complex metal supply network, including at least southern copper, highly radiogenic lead, and recycled early bronze.

Metallogeny of the Yi’nan Tongjing Au–Cu skarn deposit, Luxi district, North China Craton: Perspective from in-suit trace elements, sulfur and lead isotopes of sulfides

Gold–Cu skarn deposits are characterized by a diverse mineral assemblage, whose in-situ major/trace elements and isotope compositions can provide key constraints to the migration and enrichment of Au during hydrothermal processes. The Yi’nan Tongjing Au–Cu deposit is located in the central part of the Luxi district, and both skarn and Au–Cu ore bodies occur at the contact between the Early Cretaceous diorite porphyry and the Neoproterozoic to Cambrian carbonate rocks. Five stages of mineralization were identified: 1) early skarn (garnet–diopside–wollastonite); 2) late skarn (magnetite–epidote–actinolite±tremolite); 3) oxide (specularite–hematite); 4) sulfide (pyrite–chalcopyrite–sphalerite–quartz–chlorite); and 5) late quartz–calcite. The mineralization process in the Tongjing Au-Cu deposit was revealed by detailed scanning electron microscope-backscattered electron imaging, electron probe microanalysis, in-situ trace element, sulfur and lead isotope analysis. Magnetite is enriched in chalcophile elements (Cu, Zn, Pb), Co and Ni, probably due to hydrothermal overprint. The substitution of As and other elements in the formation of pyrite is conducive to the entry of Au into pyrite. The increase of Se and As contents in pyrite from stage IVa to IVb indicates that the temperature, salinity and oxygen fugacity of the ore-forming fluid decrease while the pH rises, resulting in the unloading of Au. The temperature of Au mineralization based on the Se content in pyrite does not exceed 300°C. Furthermore, V positively correlated with Ti and Ni/Cr ratios ≥1 in magnetite and most Co/Ni ratios in pyrite >10 all confirm their hydrothermal origins. The restricted sulfur (δ34SV-CDT = −0.5–1.2‰; mean = 0.4‰) and lead (206Pb/204Pb = 17.323–17.383; 207Pb/204Pb = 15.424–15.452; 208Pb/204Pb = 37.367–37.454) isotopic compositions suggest that the deep magma provided the primary mineralized material, accompanied by a relatively small amount of shallow crustal material. The Yi’nan Tongjing Au–Cu skarn deposit was formed in the Early Cretaceous, which is an important metallogenic response to the strong decratonization of the North China Craton induced by the paleo-Pacific Plate roll-back. This study shows that there is a large potential of Early Cretaceous skarn mineralization in the Luxi district.

New evidence for long-distance trade in arsenical copper during the Early Bronze Age in the southern Levant: analysis of weapons from the Nesher-Ramla cemetery

The paper presents new data regarding trade in metals during Early Bronze IB. Using chemical and lead isotope analysis of weapons from Early Bronze Age IB burials from the Nesher Ramla Quarry, located in the Shephelah (piedmont) bordering the Judean foothills, it is shown that complex metals were likely procured from eastern Anatolia. These data join similar analytic results regarding several artefacts from the Kfar Monash hoard and evidence from Tell es-Shuna, and it is suggested that metal trade might be considered as a possible conduit for the transfer of cultural ideas and modes of social organization on the eve of southern Levantine urbanism.

The Metal Assemblage of Early Iron Age el-Aḥwat: Trade and Metalworking in the Margins of the Southern Levantine Central Highlands

The large metal assemblage of the unique site of el-Aḥwat, a short-lived Iron I settlement, is presented here for the first time. It mainly comprises local tools, jewellery and evidence of bronzeworking, typical of Iron Age I urban settlements in the lowlands, mostly continuing Late Bronze Age traditions. Spatial distribution of the metal finds shows that metals were abundant across the site. Lead isotope analysis reveals that the copper at the site is local, originating from the Arabah, and that the silver is from the Aegaean-Anatolian sphere. Copper spills and ingot suggest that copper and bronze were worked on the site. As metals are rare in the central hill country during this period, the results suggest that el-Aḥwat should be reconsidered as an exceptional site, not only in its large size, unique architecture and marginal location between the highlands and lowlands, but even more so as its inhabitants maintained commercial connections with the lowlands, coast and beyond, and were probably engaged in metalworking.

Lead isotope analysis for provenancing ancient materials: a comparison of approaches.

Lead isotope analysis has been used to determine the provenance of metals such as lead, silver and bronze for many decades. Nevertheless, different approaches to interpret lead isotopic ratios have been proposed. In this study, three methods to couple the lead isotopic signature of archaeological artefacts to their possible mineral resources will be compared: the conventional assessment of biplots, a clustering method combined with calculating model ages (as applied by F. Albarède et al., J. Archaeol. Sci., 2020, 121, 105194), and relative probability calculations using kernel density estimates (as proposed by De Ceuster and Degryse, Archaeometry, 2020, 62(1), 107-116). The three different approaches will be applied to a dataset of lead isotopic analyses of 99 Roman Republican silver coins previously analyzed, pointing to a primary origin of the silver in the mining regions of Spain, NW-Europe and the Aegean, but showing signs of mixing and/or recycling. The interpretations made through the different approaches are compared, indicating the strengths and weaknesses for each one. This study argues that, although the conventional biplot method gives valid visual information, it is no longer feasible due to ever growing datasets. Calculating the relative probabilities via kernel density estimation provides a more transparent and statistically correct approach that generates an overview of plausible provenance candidates per artefact. The geological perspective introduced in the cluster and model age method by F. Albarède et al., J. Archaeol. Sci., 2020, 121, 105194 broadens the analytical spectrum with geologically informed parameters and improved visualization. However, the results when applying their method as a stand-alone approach are of low resolution and may lose archaeological relevance. Their approach regarding clustering should be revised.

Combining isotope ratios for provenancing Viking Age iron artefacts in the British Isles: a pilot study.

Stable and radiogenic isotope analysis - particularly using lead isotope analysis (LIA) - has previously been shown to be a useful tool for the provenancing of ancient metal artefacts of silver and copper and its alloys, but less progress has been made in the provenancing of iron artefacts, despite their importance and frequency in the archaeological record. In this pilot study we investigate for the first time the possibilities of iron isotope analysis in combination with trace strontium isotope analysis and LIA for the provenancing of iron objects believed to be from the Viking Age in the British Isles. Previous studies have shown that analysis of each of these isotopes can contribute to provenancing iron artefacts, but they are not individually resolutory. In this proof-of-concept study, we examine the Fe, Sr and Pb isotopes of 7 artefacts believed to derive from the Viking Age: 3 from Meols - a former Viking seaport on Wirral and 4 samples from the probable location of the AD 1066 Battle of Fulford in North Yorkshire. We also examine an additional artefact of unknown antiquity from Bebington Heath - a possible location of the AD 937 Battle of Brunanburh. Although the pilot data set is too small to make definitive conclusions, it has paved the way for a fuller study involving 100 samples (including 30 from the former Viking camp of Torksey, Lincolnshire) funded by the NEIF fund of the UK National Environmental Research Council. The high range of 87Sr/86Sr values in the present data set of 8 is beyond what would be expected for bog iron (with a cut-off ∼ 0.709) and suggests that mined ore was being used, a preliminary conclusion supported by the narrow range of Fe isotope data.

Making Copper: Processing in Early Bronze Age Arslantepe (VI B2)

This paper presents results of archaeometallurgical finds from Arslantepe VI B2 and observations and geoscientific analyses of ores and ore deposits in East Anatolia which are connected with this site. Function and technology of Early Bronze Age crucible smelting in a small scale domestic mode of production are discussed. Ore and rock inclusions in slag and lead isotope analyses are consistent with the origins of various copper sources on the Black Sea coast in the north (Artvin/Murgul, Trabzon) and in the south (Ergani Maden, Upper Mesopotamia) and broadens the Early Bronze Age trade of the Kura Araxes cultural network. The petrology of slags also from Çayönü Tepesi and Nevali Çori shows their formation by partial (eutectic) smelting processes and the non-liquation of refractory materials. The model of deliberate fluxing in smelting copper is proven to be disputable. Smelting of copper was performed in portable crucibles of surprisingly large size with air supply from below.

The Dawn of Metallurgy at Chalcolithic Arslantepe: Metal Finds and Other Metallurgical Remains from Level VII

This paper deals with archaeometallurgical remains from period VII (Late Chalcolithic 3-4, 3900-3400 BC) of the settlement of Arslantepe (Malatya, Turkey). It aims at compiling early metallurgy (metallurgical artefacts, slags) by means of interdisciplinary scientific analysis. In contrast to later periods, the metallurgy of the Late Chalcolithic has as yet only been investigated to a limited degree. Trace elements and lead isotope analysis of metal artefacts and slags allowed for a reconstruction of provenances of raw materials in order to deal with trade networks. Lead and copper slags were analysed for texture and phase content to reconstruct metallurgical operations. Late Chalcolithic activities from Arslantepe level VII are compared with the metallurgy of the previous level, VIII, as well as of later periods (levels VI A, VI B). Various metal groups could be identified at Arslantepe VII, most notably copper, arsenic copper and arsenic-nickel copper. The slag samples show the smelting and processing of copper and lead within the settlement, while the lead slags may also indicate the extraction of silver. The differing compositions indicate the use of differentraw material sources, which is also supported by the lead isotope analysis data.