Lead-acid Battery Technology Research Articles

Rice husk-based activated carbon/carbon nanotubes composites for synergistically enhancing the performance of lead-carbon batteries

Lead-carbon batteries (LCBs), an advanced form of lead-acid battery (LAB) technology, incorporate super-capacitive carbon materials into the negative electrode. Rice husk-based activated carbon (RHAC) is a promising additive for LCBs due to its favorable properties. However, RHAC's amorphous structure impedes electronic conduction, and its zigzag microporous channels hinder ion transport, leading to degraded high-rate performance. This study addresses these issues by growing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in situ on RHAC through a one-step heat treatment, resulting in carbon nanotubes-loaded RHAC (CNTs/RHAC), and the electronic conductivity and ionic conductivity are simultaneously enhanced. When CNTs constitute 30 wt.% of CNTs/RHAC, the negative electrode achieves a cycle life of 4721 cycles at a 2C rate under 50% state of charge, which is 10.04 times that of the blank anode. The enhanced performance is attributed to the synergistic effects of CNTs and RHAC, where CNTs form long-range conductive networks among the negative electrode active material (NAM) and facilitate the diffusion and electro-deposition of Pb2+, while the high specific surface area (SSA) and hierarchical porous structure of RHAC enhance its capacitive function, leading to a stable lead-carbon composite structure.

Revitalizing lead-acid battery technology: a comprehensive review on material and operation-based interventions with a novel sound-assisted charging method

This comprehensive review examines the enduring relevance and technological advancements in lead-acid battery (LAB) systems despite competition from lithium-ion batteries. LABs, characterized by their extensive commercial application since the 19th century, boast a high recycling rate. They are commonly used in large-scale energy storage and as backup sources in various applications. This study delves into the primary challenges facing LABs, notably their short cycle life, and the mechanisms underlying capacity decline, such as sulfation, grid corrosion, and positive active material (PAM) degradation. We present an in-depth analysis of various material-based interventions, including active material expanders, grid alloying, and electrolyte additives, designed to mitigate these aging mechanisms. These interventions include using barium sulfate and carbon additives to reduce sulfation, implementing lead-calcium-tin alloys for grid stability, and incorporating boric and phosphoric acids in electrolytes for enhanced performance. In contrast, operation-based strategies focus on optimizing battery management during operation. These include modifying charging algorithms, employing desulfation techniques, and integrating novel approaches such as reflex and electroacoustic charging. The latter, a promising technique, involves using sound waves to enhance the electrochemical processes and potentially prolong the cycle life of LABs. Initial findings suggest that electroacoustic charging could revitalize interest in LAB technology, offering a sustainable and economically viable option for renewable energy storage. The review evaluates the techno-economic implications of improved LAB cycle life, particularly in renewable energy storage. It underscores the potential of extending LAB cycle life through material and operation-based strategies, including the innovative application of electroacoustic charging, to enhance the competitiveness of LABs in the evolving energy storage market.

Battery selection criteria for electric vehicles: techno-economic analysis

In this study, different battery types to be used in the conversion of a small and light (600-1000 kg) internal combustion engine vehicle into an electric vehicle were analyzed. The study was conducted to ensure that this vehicle is suitable for urban use and has a range of approximately 100 km. Each battery technology capacity is evaluated to be approximately 15 kWh. While performing the techno-economic analysis of different battery types, it was taken into account that they provide the necessary energy for about 10 years. Seven different battery technologies (lead-acid, gel, Ni-Cd, Li-Ion, LiFePo4, LiPo, Ni-MH) were used for comparison. In the analysis; price assessment in US Dollars ($), 10-year investment cost, weight and volume values, weight and volume values required to produce 1 kWh of energy were presented in tables. In addition to these, a review of battery life was made. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of battery technologies compared to each other are given. As a result of the study, it was seen that the cheapest technology for a 10-year lifespan was lead-acid technology. It has been determined that lead-acid technology is 30% cheaper than the second cheapest gel technology and 82% cheaper than the most expensive technology, LiPo technology. In the study, it was revealed that the lightest technology was LiPo. It has been determined that this technology is 85% lighter than gel technology. Besides this information, data on cycle life, self-discharge, advantages and disadvantages are presented in tabular form.

High energy X-ray imaging of heterogeneity in charged and discharged lead-acid battery electrodes

Lead-acid battery technology continues to form a critical part of the global electrochemical energy storage market. Part of the reason for the lead-acid battery's success is due to its well understood electrochemistry. However, over recent years it has become clear that a poor understanding of inherent heterogeneity in chemical changes that happen during the charge and discharge cycles of these batteries is limiting innovation. In this paper we show that high-energy X-rays can be used to better understand how the chemistry within these systems is localised spatially, and how it affects battery performance. Used commercial lead-acid battery electrodes were sampled then imaged before and after the Pb K-edge (88 keV). In these electrodes, multiple features associated with battery failure were clearly observed throughout each electrode. A custom-made lead-acid battery was also imaged in-operando. Inhomogeneous utilization of the negative electrode arising from charge-transport effects could be clearly observed in the electrode face. These results show that high-energy X-ray imaging could be a powerful tool to better understand the relationship between the spatial and electrochemical dimensions in lead-acid batteries.

Modelling and techno-economic analysis of standalone SPV/Wind hybrid renewable energy system with lead-acid battery technology for rural applications

The present work discusses an enhanced optimal solution for electrifying an individual rural consumer in a northern Indian village. The optimisation and sizing assessment is based on the techno-economic and socio-environmental parameters. The real-time market-based design variables have been considered for the present investigation. The renewable resources are assessed by the PDAV tool from NASA linked to the HOMER-Pro software tool. A stand-alone hybrid renewable energy system is designed for the domestic load of 55.14 kWh/day and 11.71 kW peak demand. The comparative analysis finds the stand-alone Solar Photovoltaic and Wind energy hybrid renewable energy system suitable. The net present and energy costs are determined as $34,344 and 0.152$/kWh for an optimized Hybrid System. In the present work, the employment creation with social aspects of the renewable energy system is analysed in a distinguished manner. A novel approach is adapted for the environmental effect of hybrid energy systems. The sensitivity analysis and robustness viability has been performed for the optimized arrangement. In the scope of optimal sizing, an equivalent model of the hybrid energy system is recreated in Matlab/Simulink. Each Matlab/Simulink model section is analysed separately with better technical aspects for the different input parameters.

Understanding Redox Reaction Mechanisms of a Flavin Mononucleotide By in Situ NMR and EPR Techniques

There are many types of energy storage technologies available at present, such as batteries and supercapacitors.1,2 Common battery chemistries include lead3 and lithium-ion4; however, scaling them up to the grid level is challenging.2 Recently, redox flow batteries (RFBs) have attracted much attention, as they can overcome the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources. We have previously developed a new approach to study RFBs by using in-situ nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and in-situ electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), allowing the real time tracking of the redox state of various species in a system. As a result of this work, the electrochemical processes can be better understood. Investigating and understanding the electrolyte properties is a major goal in flow battery research and this will help to develop further RFB systems.Here, we report the analysis of the redox mechanism of a flavin mononucleotide-based anolyte (FMN) in a RFB system with the in-situ NMR and EPR setups. It represents one of the safest families of organic molecules for flow battery applications as it is a molecule derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2) and commonly used as an orange-red food additive.5–7 Nevertheless, the redox properties of flavins in strongly alkaline solution have yet to be thoroughly studied. In particular, the mechanism of the redox reaction for this system is not well understood.To understand the chemistry of FMN in strongly alkaline solution, first the NMR properties were studied. It was revealed that the chemical structure of FMN changed over time, i.e., additional signals were observed to grow in, and, additionally, the existence of a paramagnetic species was confirmed. The paramagnetic species formed on dissolution and was responsible for significant line broadening in the NMR spectrum. To examine how these changes affect the redox properties of FMN, a RFB was cycled over multiple cycles. Here we observed a second charge plateau developed as we continued to cycle the battery that was not mirrored during discharge. The in-situ EPR and NMR analysis reveal that the second plateau was likely caused by a side product derived from FMN. Therefore, possible degradation mechanisms of flavins, such as hydrolysis, need to be considered. Herein we propose that the observed changes over time are caused by the hydrolysis of FMN and provide an explanation for the different redox properties.References Wang, Y. & Zhong, W. H. Development Of Electrolytes Towards Achieving Safe And High-Performance Energy-Storage Devices: A Review. ChemElectroChem 2, 22–36 (2015).Divya, K. C. & Østergaard, J. Battery Energy Storage Technology For Power Systems - An Overview. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 79, 511–520 (2009).Ruetschi, P. Review On The Lead-Acid Battery Science And Technology. J. Power Sources 2, 3–120 (1977).Goodenough, J. B. & Park, K. S. The Li-Ion Rechargeable Battery: A Perspective. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135, 1167–1176 (2013).Orita, A., Verde, M. G., Sakai, M. & Meng, Y. S. A Biomimetic Redox Flow Battery Based On Flavin Mononucleotide. Nat. Commun. 7, 1–8 (2016).Grajek, H., Zurkowska, G., Drabent, R. & Bojarski, C. Hanna Grajek. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 881, 241–247 (1986).Grajek, H., Drabent, R., Zurkowska, G. & Bojarski, C. Absorption Of The Flavin Dimers. BBA - Gen. Subj. 801, 456–460 (1984). Figure 1

Valve Regulated Lead Acid Battery Evaluation under Peak Shaving and Frequency Regulation Duty Cycles

This work highlights the performance metrics and the fundamental degradation mechanisms of lead-acid battery technology and maps these mechanisms to generic duty cycles for peak shaving and frequency regulation grid services. Four valve regulated lead acid batteries have been tested for two peak shaving cycles at different discharge rates and two frequency regulation duty cycles at different SOC ranges. Reference performance and pulse resistance tests are done periodically to evaluate battery degradation over time. The results of the studies are expected to provide a valuable understanding of lead acid battery technology suitability for grid energy storage applications.

Chemistry Options for Lithium-Ion UPS and BBU [Expert View

Industrial rack-mounted uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) or battery backup units (BBU) are used in data centers or telecom central offices to provide backup power for servers and switching equipment in the event of power failure. Historically, these UPS’s have relied on lead-acid as the predominant battery type. Currently, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are gaining market share over the incumbent lead-acid battery technology. To differentiate UPS from BBU power sources, we define a typical UPS as double-conversion with ac-dc-ac power conversion, while BBU is the embedded battery with dc voltage input and output. While the input/output of a UPS is more universal by providing either single-phase 120–240 V <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">AC</sub> or three-phase 208–480 V <sub xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">AC</sub> , the BBU dc output voltage is typically matched to the equipment it is powering. DC powered equipment is gaining acceptance in multiple industries for the simplicity, and efficiency. More and more installations are relying on BBU’s and dc plants to power their equipment directly. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig1" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">Figure 1</xref> presents a BBU and a dc plant installed in a telecom rack with space for other equipment that needs a backup power source.

An Approach to Describe Lead-Acid Batteries Lifetime By Combining Electrochemical and Electric Models

In this work, a model for lead-acid batteries that combines electric and electrochemical models is proposed and analyzed with respect to experimental data extracted from Huatacondo power plant in Chile. Using experimental overpotential versus current curves, our approach combines the Butler-Volmer equation with an electric model developed by Schiffer et al [1] to predict performance and quantify ageing mechanisms, which determine battery internal resistances and capacity for discharge cycles, based on phenomenological basis through Butler-Volmer ans Shiffer models. A good correspondence between voltage-current curves and experimental data was obtained especially at low currents (activation zone). Our approach shows that overpotentials at discharge times in which State-of-Charge (SoC) is above 0.8 (one hour approximately) are mainly due to gas production (gassing current) and degradation of active mass. Furthermore, when SoC is below 0.8, contributions to overpotential become mostly due to degradation by corrosion. This approach has a great potential and is able not only to predict ageing of lead-acid batteries adequately, but also to give insights of the phenomenology of the different degradation mechanisms involved in this kind of batteries.[1] J. Schiffer, D.U. Sauer, H. Bindner, T. Cronin, P. Lundsager, R. Kaiser, Model prediction for ranking lead-acid batteries according to expected lifetime in renewable energy systems and autonomous power-supply systems, J. Power Sources. 168 (2007) 66–78.[2] Z.M. Salameh, M.A. Casacca, W.A. Lynch, A Mathematical Model for Lead-Acid Batteries, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 7 (1992) 93–98.[3] J. Jung, V. Neburchilov, J. Zhang, Z. Li, J.K. Whear, H. Chen, R.D. Prengaman, I. Buchmann, M. Cugnet, B. Yann Liaw, Lead-acid Battery technoLogies: Fundamentals, Materials, and Applications, First edit, CRC Press, 2016.[4] M. Chen, S. Member, G.A. Rinc, Accurate Electrical Battery Model Capable of Predicting Runtime and I – V Performance, IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 21 (2006) 504–511.[5] G.J. May, A. Davidson, B. Monahov, Lead batteries for utility energy storage : A review, J. Energy Storage. 15 (2018) 145–157.[6] H. Hao, K. Chen, H. Liu, H. Wang, J. Liu, K. Yang, H. Yan, A Review of the Positive Electrode Additives in Lead-Acid Batteries, 13 (2018) 2340.[7] Zou, L. Zhang, X. Hu, Z. Wang, T. Wik, M. Pecht, A review of fractional-order techniques applied to lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, and supercapacitors, J. Power Sources. 390 (2018) 286–296.[8] I. Sanz-Gorrachategui, C. Bernal, E. Oyarbide, E. Garayalde, I. Aizpuru, J.M. Canales, A. Bono-Nuez, New battery model considering thermal transport and partial charge stationary effects in photovoltaic off-grid applications, J. Power Sources. 378 (2018) 311–321.[9] M. Moncecchi, C. Brivio, S. Mandelli, M. Merlo, Battery energy storage systems in microgrids: Modeling and design criteria, Energies. 13 (2020) 1–18.[10] Mohsin, A. Picot, P. Maussion, Lead-acid battery modelling in perspective of aeging: a review, 2019 IEEE 12th Int. Symp. Diagnostics Electr. Mach. Power Electron. Drives. (2019) 425–431.[11] J.A. Osara, M.D. Bryant, Thermodynamics of Lead-Acid Battery Degradation: Application of the Degradation-Entropy Generation Methodology, J. Electrochem. Soc. 166 (2019) A4188–A4210.[12] A. Degla, M. Chikh, A. Chouder, F. Bouchafaa, A. Taallah, Update battery model for photovoltaic application based on comparative analysis and parameter identification of lead – acid battery models behaviour, IET Renew. Power Gener. 12 (2018) 484–493.[13] D. Uwe, H. Wenzl, Comparison of different approaches for lifetime prediction of electrochemical systems - Using lead-acid batteries as example, J. Power Sources. 176 (2008) 534–546.[14] M. Franke, J. Kowal, Empirical sulfation model for valve-regulated lead-acid batteries under cycling operation, J. Power Sources. 380 (2018) 76–82.[15] M. Layadi, G. Champenois, M. Mostefai, D. Abbes, Lifetime estimation tool of lead-acid batteries for hybrid power sources design, Simul. Model. Pract. Theory. 54 (2015) 36–48.[16] R. Dufo López, J.M. Lujano Rojas, J.L. Bernal Agustín, Comparison of different lead-acid battery lifetime prediction models for use in simulation of stand-alone photovoltaic systems, Appl. Energy. 115 (2014) 242–253.[17] Saldaña, J.I. San Martín, I. Zamora, F.J. Asensio, O. Oñederra, Analysis of the Current Electric Battery Models for Electric Vehicle Simulation, Energies. 12 (2019) 2750–2777.[18] F. Sun, R. Xiong, H. He, W. Li, J.E.E. Aussems, Model-based dynamic multi-parameter method for peak power estimation of lithium-ion batteries, Appl. Energy. 96 (2012) 378–386.[19] S. Tian, M. Hong, M. Ouyang, An Experimental Study and Nonlinear Modeling of Discharge I – V Behavior of Valve-Regulated Lead – Acid Batteries, (2009).[20] Ozkurt, F. Camci, V. Atamuradov, C. Odorry, Integration of sampling based battery state of health estimation method in electric vehicles, Appl. Energy. 175 (2016) 356–367.

Off-Grid Rural Electrification in India Using Renewable Energy Resources and Different Battery Technologies with a Dynamic Differential Annealed Optimization

Several families in India live in remote places with no access to grid-connected power supply due to their remoteness. The study area chosen from the Indian state of Odisha does not have an electrical power supply due to its distant location. As a result, this study analyzed the electrification process using Renewable Energy (RE) resources available in the locality. However, these RE resources are limited by their dependency on weather conditions and time. So, a robust battery storage system is needed for a continuous power supply. Hence, the Nickel Iron (Ni-Fe), Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) and Lead Acid (LA) battery technologies have been analyzed to identify a battery technology that is both technologically and economically viable. Using the available RE resources in the study area, such as photovoltaic and biomass energy resources, as well as the various battery technologies, three configurations have been modelled, such as Photovoltaic Panels (PVP)/Biomass Generator(BIOMG)/BATTERY(Ni-Fe), PV/BIOMG/BATTERY(Li-Ion) and PVP/BMG/BATTERY(LA). These three configurations have been examined using nine prominent metaheuristic algorithms, in which the PVP/BIOMG/BATTERY(Ni-Fe) configuration provided the optimal Life Cycle Cost value of 367,586 USD. Among the all metaheuristic algorithms, the dynamic differential annealed optimization algorithm was given the best Life Cycle Cost values for all of the three configurations.

EVALUASI KONDISI BATERAI SISTEM HYBRID DI BARON TECHNO PARK

Abstract - The Baron Techno Park area is a model of an energy independent area that utilizes an electrical system based on a Hybrid Power Plant (Wind Energy and Solar Energy). The electrical system was built using an off grid system since 2011, by utilizing a battery of 120 cells @ 1200 Ah as energy storage. A battery system with lead acid battery (flooded battery) technology that has been operating for 10 years should be a concern. This makes a consideration for conducting research on evaluating the performance of a hybrid system battery. Voltage (V) and Specific Gravity (SG) measurements in no-load conditions are used as methods to see battery performance. Based on the measurement results, it is known that the average voltage and specific gravity are 2.074 volts and 1.160 g/ml. From the measurements, it is also shown that the 87th battery cell has the lowest performance, with an average voltage value of 2.023 volts and an average specific gravity of 1.099 g/ml.

A New In Situ and Operando Measurement Method to Determine the Electrical Conductivity of the Negative Active Material in Lead-Acid Batteries during Operation

The electrical conductivity of the negative active material in lead-acid batteries has been found to significantly influence the properties of the electrode. Though several publications have addressed this subject, essential information on the conductivity evolution during cycling as well as the influence of additives could yet not be elucidated, even though specific knowledge could support the enhancement of existing lead-acid battery technology. In this study, a novel measurement setup is presented which enables the in-situ and operando measurement of the electrical resistance of bulk electrodes during operation based on the implementation of a four-point probe setup into a laboratory electrode. A comprehensive evaluation of the measurement setup is conducted using the negative electrode of a lead-acid battery as a test material. The experimental results are supported by numerical simulations in order to reflect and include all relevant geometrical and electrical influences from the measurement setup. A direct correlation between active material resistance and conductivity can be established, including the influence of the vertical position of the four-point probes. Finally, the evolution of the discharge capacity, electrical resistance and electrical conductivity of the negative electrode is studied over ten C 5 cycles and correlated to well-known structural developments within the active material.

Design of measuring and evaluation unit for multi-cell traction battery system of industrial AGV

This paper presents practical design procedure of the electric measuring circuit and evaluation/communication unit of the multi-cell series–parallel connection of traction lead-acid batteries. The target use is online SOC monitoring during the operation of automated guided vehicle (AGV), which is being used for in-house automated industrial processes. Based on the state-of-the-art review, proper methodology for SOC determination was selected for the given lead-acid battery technology. For that purpose, the measuring procedure for identification of the battery equivalent circuit was initially realized and is being described within the main text. The results from the equivalent circuit identification were used for design of the precise measuring circuit which is responsible for the determination of SOC levels based on selected methodologies. These methodologies were implemented within evaluating unit (MCU), while functionality of the proposed system for the SOC identification was tested and evaluated within standard operational conditions of AGV robot.

A critical perspective on rechargeable Al-ion battery technology.

The development of rechargeable aluminum-ion batteries (AIBs) has recently attracted much scientific attention due to the low cost and high specific capacity of Al. Most efforts are being concentrated on enhancing the specific charge capacity of active materials for the positive electrode, while other important issues for commercial deployment of this technology have often been overlooked. The aim of this frontier article is not to systematically review the recent advances in the literature, but to bring under the spotlight the critical aspects requiring intensive research activity for paving the way toward the commercialization of AIBs. After a brief revision of the fundaments of an Al-ion battery, the discussion is classified into 5 sections: energy density, specific power, cost, cycle life and safety. Finally, a performance comparison among Al-ion, Li-ion and lead-acid battery technologies on the basis of these 5 primary parameters summarizes the strengths and limitations of Al-ion batteries.

Effect of magnesium sulfate on the electrochemical behavior of lead electrodes for lead acid batteries

AbstractThe lead acid battery technology has undergone several modifications in the recent past, in particular, the electrode grid composition, oxide paste recipe with incorporation of foreign additives into the electrodes and similarly additives added in the electrolytes to improve electrical performance of the lead acid battery. In this paper, the electrochemical behavior of the lead electrodes with different weight/volume percentages (wt./v%) of MgSO4(0.0., 0.5., 1.0., 2.0., and 5.0) added into the electrolyte have been investigated with cyclic voltammetry (CV), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The CV profile showed better redox behavior of the lead electrodes which was attributed to the increased active surface area of the electrode. Further studies of the gas evolution found a mixed trend and a considerable drop in the impedance as observed by LSV and EIS analysis as compared to the blank electrolyte solution. The influence of a modified electrolyte on the electrochemical activity of the lead electrodes is correlated and discussed.

Battery Capacity Estimation for Building Integrated Photovoltaic System: Design Study for Different Geographical Location(s)

Building Integrated Photovoltaic system (BIPV) with energy storage (ES) can help in reducing the peak demand, improving the power quality and control dispatching of the power. Adding a proper size of battery ES to the grid-connected PV system could reduce the overall investment cost as well as reducing the grid-dependency. A typical battery energy storage capacity is going to be determined by considering the real-time operational (PV production as well as load consumption) data. In this study, real-time operational data of a residential load (C6 house) with BIPV system located Southern Norway as well as institutional load (Teri university) with BIPV located in New Delhi, India are used for estimating the size of the battery energy storage considering the maximum reduction in the annual electricity bill. The estimation of battery capacity is done considering the characteristics of lead-acid battery technology and the electrical pricing mechanism. Based on the results, it is observed that for these typical PV and load profiles, installation a capacity of 2100 Ah lead-acid battery to C6 house will reduce the annual electricity bill by 17.6 % of the bill before installing the battery. Similarly, the annual electricity bill is minimum for a battery capacity of 6000 Ah for Teri university. If this battery capacity (6000 Ah) is added, then the annual electricity bill is reduced by 5500 Indian rupee INR.

Thermal characterization of tetrabasic lead sulfate used in the lead acid battery technology

The thermal production of 4PbO·PbSO4 was comprehensively studied and characterized for two syntheses routes, i.e. either heating 3PbO·PbSO4·H2O, or a mixture of 4PbO:PbSO4, in air to about 700 °C. In the 3PbO·PbSO4·H2O approach, the formation of an intermediate amorphous phase occurred at around 210 °C with the loss of H2O from the hydrated structure. Formation of 4PbO·PbSO4 initiated at around 270 °C with predominantly 4PbO·PbSO4 and 13% residual PbO·PbSO4 existing at 700 °C. With the synthesis route of mixing a stoichiometric ratio of 4PbO with PbSO4, an intermediate phase of PbO·PbSO4 formed at around 300 °C, before the 4PbO·PbSO4 phase started to form at around 500 °C. Upon further heating, 4PbO·PbSO4 was the predominant phase with 8% of PbO·PbSO4 remaining. Both samples decomposed upon further heating to 850 °C. Powder neutron diffraction studies of the final 4PbO·PbSO4 products from the two different synthesis routes showed similar crystallographic unit cell lattice parameters with slight differences in the PbO:PbSO4 contents. This could possibly be linked to differences observed in the microscopic crystallite shapes from the two synthesis routes.

Optimum community energy storage system for PV energy time-shift

A novel method has been designed to obtain the optimum community energy storage (CES) systems for end user applications. The method evaluates the optimum performance (including the round trip efficiency and annual discharge), levelised cost (LCOES), the internal rate of return and the levelised value of suitable energy storage technologies. A complimentary methodology was developed including three reference years (2012, 2020 and zero carbon year) to show the evolution of the business case during the low carbon transition. The method follows a community approach and the optimum CES system was calculated as a function of the size of the community. In this work, this method was put in practice with lead-acid (PbA) and lithium-ion battery (Li-ion) technologies when performing PV energy time-shift using real demand data from a single home to a 100-home community. The community approach reduced the LCOES down to 0.30£/kWh and 0.11£/kWh in 2020 and the zero carbon year respectively. These values meant a cost reduction by 37% and 66% regarding a single home. Results demonstrated that PbA batteries needs from 1.5 to 2.5 times more capacity than Li-ion chemistry to reduce the LCOES, the worst case scenario being for the smallest communities, because the more spiky demand profile required proportionately larger PbA battery capacities.

Comparison the Economic Analysis of the Battery between Lithium-ion and Lead-acid in PV Stand-alone Application

This paper presents the economics analysis of 140 Wp photovoltaic (PV) stand-alone system by using a generic excel model. The main components of PV stand-alone system consist of 140 Wp PV module, 150 W inverter, and two different types of battery as lithium-ion and lead-acid battery. The economic analysis of this paper presents the cost of energy (COE), benefit cost ratio (BCR), and simple net present value (SNPV). From the results of this study show that the COE, BCR, and SNPV of PV standalone system, which using lithium-ion battery are 0.13, 34.93 baht/kWh and 145,927 baht, respectively. For the COE, BCR, and SNPV of PV stand-alone system, which using lead-acid battery are 0.19, 23.30 Baht/kWh and 89,143 Baht, respectively.Although the economic parameters show that the PV stand-alone which using lead-acid batteries is suitable than PV stand-alone that used lithium-ion battery. However, lithium-ion batteries have many advantages when compare with lead-acid battery technology as high energy density, low maintenance and the number of lifecycle is higher compared with lead-acid battery.

PbO networks composed of single crystalline nanosheets synthesized by a facile chemical precipitation method

For the field of energy storage, nanostructured lead oxide (PbO) shows immense potential for increased specific energy and deep discharge for lead acid battery technologies. In this work, PbO networks composed of single crystalline nanosheets were synthesized utilizing a simple, low cost and rapid chemical precipitation method. The PbO networks were prepared in a single reaction vessel from starting reagents of lead acetate dehydrate, ammonium hydroxide and deionized water. Lead acetate dehydrate was chosen as a reagent, as opposed to lead nitrate, to eliminate the possibility of nitrate contamination of the final product. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, high resolution scanning electron microscopy (HRSEM) and high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) analysis were used to characterize the synthesized PbO networks. The reproducible method described herein synthesized pure β-PbO (massicot) powders, with no byproducts. A possible formation mechanism for these PbO networks is proposed. The growth is found to proceed predominately in the 〈111〉 and 〈200〉 directions while being limited in the 〈011〉 direction.