Production Of Lead-acid Batteries Research Articles

The Role of Carbon in Lead-Acid Batteries: Applications, Challenges, and Future Opportunities

The incorporation of various forms of elemental carbon into lead-acid batteries has the potential to significantly enhance battery performance. Carbon materials are commonly used as additives to the negative active material, particularly to improve cycle life and charge acceptance under high-rate partial state-of-charge (HRPSoC) conditions, which are prevalent in hybrid and electric vehicles. Carbon nanostructures and composite materials may also offer similar benefits. However, the impact of carbon on the positive active material is generally more limited compared to its influence on the negative side. Additionally, carbon can serve as a mesh current collector for both negative and positive plates. This advanced technology boosts energy storage efficiency by increasing the battery’s specific energy and optimizing active mass utilization. Such batteries, featuring a more robust active mass structure, promise extended cycle life. Recently, another important application of carbon in secondary batteries is its use in supercapacitor electrodes, which can either replace the negative plate or be connected in parallel with the lead plate. These innovative approaches enhance overall battery efficiency by improving specific power and HRPSoC performance. Furthermore, integrating carbon-based technologies into the production of lead-acid batteries can significantly enhance their performance, giving them a competitive advantage over other battery systems. These advancements also hold substantial potential for delivering more environmentally friendly and cost-effective energy storage solutions.

A Diagnostic Approach to Improving the Energy Efficiency of Production Processes—2E-DAmIcS Methodology

This article presents the issue of energy waste in manufacturing processes, focusing on reducing unnecessary energy consumption and CO2 emissions. A significant challenge in modern production is identifying and minimizing energy waste, which not only increases operational costs but also contributes to environmental degradation. An improvement methodology referred to as 2E-DAmIcS is proposed. A distinguishing feature of the methodology is a risk map of energy waste in the production process. Application of the methodology is demonstrated using the example of a lead–acid battery production process. It is shown that even small but well-diagnosed changes to the process make it possible to significantly reduce energy consumption. The proposed methodology offers practical tools for managers and decision-makers in various industries to systematically identify and minimize energy waste. It highlights the importance of cross-disciplinary collaboration among specialists in technology, energy consumption, and statistical analysis to optimize energy use. By applying this approach, companies can achieve both financial savings and environmental benefits, contributing to more sustainable production practices.

Influence of Sensor Accuracy on Planned Process Times for Lead-Acid Battery Production

To achieve the 1.5-degree climate goal of the Paris Agreement, energy consumption in production must be reduced, particularly for energy-intensive products like lead-acid batteries. In this study, we develop a simulation model for a lead-acid battery real-world case company and integrate the effect of sensor data during the heat treatment process, i.e., maturation and drying of lead plates. The sensor used in this context provides a range for the stochastic minimum required energy at the maturation and drying. Leveraging this data, we develop a heuristic approach to optimize the planned process times for both steps. Moreover, the effect of sensor accuracy, which determines the number of provided ranges, is observed. Simulation results reveal a significant energy reduction compared to optimized planned process times without sensor information. In addition, our findings also highlight the importance of sensor accuracy in achieving lower energy consumption during the heat treatment process.

Effects of High Level of Lead (II) Oxide (PbO) Usage on Accumulator and Response Surface Method

This study involved the preparation of lead oxide paste for use in the production of lead-acid batteries. The paste was applied to the positive plates, and its performance effects were tested on the battery. Morphological and surface area analyses were conducted using SEM and BET, respectively, after the performance tests. Two mixtures of lead oxide ratios, 25%Pb-75%PbO (sample A) and 30% Pb-70% PbO (sample B), were used. The dough was applied to positive grids and passed through the curing process. SEM images revealed that tribasic sulfate (3BS) structures had a higher charge acceptance rate than tetrabasic sulfate (4BS) structures. BET analyses showed that the surface area of the samples with A ratio was higher than that of B. Electrical tests were conducted in the laboratory, and the A sample was found to be 12% more effective in the first charging efficiency than the B sample. Sample A was also found to be 67% more efficient in charge acceptance tests and 6.5% more efficient in cycle tests. The study also showed that increasing the %Pb ratio in the product decreases the initial charge efficiency, charge acceptance, and cycle life. Finally, the response surface method was used to examine the 2D picture of the relationship between lead percentage and yield, and it was found that the highest yield was obtained at 26% lead yield, with the yield being inversely proportional to the increase in lead percentage, likely due to the effect of particle size and surface area.

Management of Natural Gas Consumption during the Manufacturing of Lead-Acid Batteries

The production of lead-acid batteries is an energy-intensive process where 28 to 35% of the energy is used in the form of heat, usually obtained from the combustion of fossil fuels. Regardless of the importance of heat consumption during battery manufacturing, there is no discussion available in the specialized literature that assesses heat during battery manufacturing. This study assessed natural gas consumption in a battery plant based on historical data, the thermographic evaluation of different equipment, and measurements of the combustion processes and combustion gases. Heat transfer models were used to calculate surface heat losses in the various assessed processes, while combustion theory was used to identify other saving potentials. Saving potentials equivalent to 16.6% of the plant’s total natural gas consumption were identified. Replacing the ingot casting system accounts for a potential saving equivalent to 13.6% of the plant gas consumption, improving the grid casting systems for 2.8%, and the leady oxide accounts for a low 0.1%. Implementing the saving measures related to surface heat loss and poor operational practice reduced natural gas consumption by an estimated 1.2% monthly. Savings could be increased to 3.2% by expanding the saving measures to the remaining grid casting systems. Overall, natural gas consumption was reduced by an estimated 777 m3/month, GHG emissions by 1.6 tCO2eq./month, and fuel costs by 1603 USD/month.

Effect of vermiculite modified with nano-iron-based material on stabilization of lead in lead contaminated soil.

Lead (Pb) contamination arising from the production of lead-acid batteries is getting more severe, and research on its treatment technology reflects the increasing concern worldwide. Vermiculite is a mineral with a layered structure, containing hydrated magnesium aluminosilicate and has high porosity and large specific surface area. Vermiculite has the ability of improving soil permeability and water retention performance. However, in recent studies, vermiculite is shown to be less effective than other stabilizing agents in immobilizing heavy metal Pb. Nano-iron-based materials have been widely used to adsorb heavy metals in wastewater. Therefore, vermiculite has been modified with two nano-iron-based materials-nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) and nano-Fe3O4 (nFe3O4) to improve its immobilization effect for the heavy metal lead. SEM and XRD analysis confirmed that nZVI and nFe3O4 were successfully loaded on the raw vermiculite. XPS analysis was applied to further understand the composition of VC@nZVI and VC@nFe3O4. The stability and mobility of nano-iron-based materials were improved after being loaded on raw vermiculite, and the Pb immobilization effect of modified vermiculite on Pb-contaminated soil was evaluated. Adding nZVI-modified vermiculite (VC@nZVI) and nFe3O4-modified vermiculite (VC@nFe3O4) increased the immobilization effect and decreased the bioavailability of Pb. Compared with raw vermiculite, adding VC@nZVI and VC@nFe3O4 increased the amount of exchangeable Pb by 30.8% and 6.17%. After leaching ten times in soil column leaching experiments, the total concentration of Pb in the leachate of the soil with VC@nZVI and VC@nFe3O4 were reduced by 40.67% and 11.47%, compared with raw vermiculite. These results prove that the modification with nano-iron-based materials enhances the immobilization effect of vermiculite, in which the effect of VC@nZVI is significantly better than VC@nFe3O4. Vermiculite was modified with nano-iron-based materials, resulting in a better fixing effect of the modified curing agent. This study provides a new approach for the remediation of Pb-contaminated soil, but further research is needed for soil recovery and utilization of nanomaterials.

A probabilistic uncertain linguistic FMEA model based on the extended ORESTE and regret theory

As a means of identifying, preventing, and controlling potential system failures, failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) has been extensively applied in many industries. However, the classical FMEA method has several defects in actual situations, such as being unable to express uncertain information, overlooking the weights of FMEA experts and risk factors (RFs), and without taking into account the experts’ psychological behaviors. To break through these constraints, a novel FMEA model based on probabilistic uncertain linguistic term sets (PULTSs), Organísation, rangement et Synthèse de données relarionnelles (in French) (ORESTE) and regret theory (RT) is proposed in this paper. First, PULTSs are introduced to express FMEA experts’ assessments under uncertainty. Then, the maximizing consensus model with PULTSs context (PUL-MCM) is constructed to obtain the weights of FMEA experts. Moreover, direct assessment weighting and maximizing deviation method (MDM) are utilized to determine the subjective and objective weights of RFs respectively, so as to reflect the importance of RFs comprehensively. Afterward, the extended ORESTE and RT are combined to prioritize FMs, which not only considers the psychological behaviors of experts and the detailed relations between failure modes (FMs) but avoids the information loss caused by the defuzzification of subjective weights of RFs. Finally, an example of the pasting process failures in lead-acid battery production is presented to illustrate the feasibility and rationality of the novel FMEA model, while sensitivity and comparative analyses are also performed to further demonstrate the flexibility and superiority of the novel FMEA model.

Lead Acid Batteries (LABs) Closed-Loop Supply Chain: The Brazilian Case

In the circular economy, a closed-loop supply chain is essential to guarantee the logistics of raw materials to the correct destination of the end-of-life (EOL) product. This is magnified by hazardous products that can contaminate the environment, such as lead, as well as the people involved in their production processes. Through an exploratory study of multiple cases, we analyzed the Brazilian lead-based vehicle battery chain by investigating two main manufacturers, two recycling companies, and eight distributors/retailers. The aim of the study was to analyze the relationships between the actors in the lead acid battery chain and identify the mechanisms that induce recycling programs, and to propose an explanatory framework. The results indicate that although the sustainability strategies of OEMs are implemented by regulatory mechanisms, the impacts of these strategies cascade among all agents in the supply chain, promoting a convergence between actions and relationships between actors from the perspective of the triple bottom line, highlighting variables for each dimension (economic, social, and environmental). The study contributes to the consolidation of the triple bottom line concepts in the lead acid battery production chain and presents managerial implications for sustainability management.

Construção de uma câmara de cura piloto com alimentação a vapor para produção de placas de baterias de chumbo-ácido.

Na produção de baterias chumbo-ácido, a etapa principal é o processo de cura de placas empastadas. Embora haja estudos tratando do processo de cura, principalmente com os objetivos de otimizar a etapa e melhorar o desempenho das baterias, existe a necessidade de um estudo sistematizado deste processo. Deste modo o principal objetivo deste trabalho é a construção de um equipamento em escala piloto com controle de umidade e temperatura, mais comumente conhecido no setor como câmara de cura. Com isso, tem-se o intuito de operá-la em diferentes condições a partir das variações de umidade e temperatura, que influencia diretamente nas propriedades do material precursor obtido após a etapa de cura. O piloto construído apresentou resultados satisfatórios, sendo, portanto, de grande valia para o estudo da influência da umidade e temperatura com as características do material precursor.

APPROACH FOR COMPREHENSIVE SUPERVISION OF THE WORKPLACE EXPOSURE TO LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS

This paper presents an interdisciplinary methodology for handling the exposure of workers to lead and its compounds in a systematic way by connecting different disciplines, and thus enabling the comprehensive supervision of the workplace exposure. The exposure of workers to lead and its compounds was studied in the Republic of Slovenia. The research comprised 1079 employers being exposed to the lead concentrations between 0.01 and 0.9 mg/m3, which exceeded the limit value by 9 times. Workers in the production of lead-acid batteries were exposed to the highest concentrations; however, the employers have already introduced the technological measures for the concentration reduction. The glazier's trade has already decreased the concentrations by even 90 % in the grinding process of crystal glass. According to the biological monitoring the highest lead values amounting up to 226 g/L were present in the blood of workers who recycle lead-acid batteries, followed by the production of lead-acid batteries and glass production with 165 g/L. The average values have not been exceeded; however, some individuals in these branches (above all smokers) have the exceeded values above 400 g/L. Moreover, the research showed that workers are exposed to lead compounds which are authorized. The proposed methodology provides algorithmic flow charts of the implementation procedures, and can serve as a guide for analysing the exposure to other dangerous substances.

Electricity management in the production of lead-acid batteries: The industrial case of a production plant in Colombia

Abstract Electricity stands as the main energy used for lead-acid battery (LAB) manufacturing. This study introduces an energy management methodology to address the electricity consumption in lead-acid battery plants, improving efficiency standards. The “equivalent battery production” is introduced to define the energy performance criteria to be met in the different production sections of the battery plant. The methodology combines the guidelines of the ISO 50001 standard with the energy management framework for manufacturing plants. The result is a structured approach for detecting inefficiencies and pinpointing their sources. The management methodology was implemented during 2016. In the formation area 222 MWh were saved during 2016. This saving accounts for 3.9% less electricity than forecasted by the energy baseline of the area. Additionally, the emission of some 40 tCO2.eq. associated with the generation of the electricity production were saved. Moreover, at plant level 424 MWh were saved, which account for 3.6% less electricity than forecasted by the energy baseline of the plant. In total, around 76 tCO2.eq. were saved as a result of the electricity savings in the plant.

When Is a Battery Starting to Operate Environmentally Positive? Comparison of Storage with Pb-Acid and Li-Ion Technology: Life Cycle Analysis, CO2 Footprint and Balance, and Overall Sustainability

In this talk the results of a study comparing Pb-acid and Li-ion batteries as power storage buffers for residential applications will be presented. The study is organized as an overall comparison, highlighting many production factors, in addition to the common financial issues. It was conducted in cooperation between the University of Landshut and California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. A cradle-to- grave life-cycle analysis of both the Li-ion and the Pb-acid battery is presented. The energy demands for production of cells in both technologies are analyzed for the single production steps. The energy needed and the CO2 generated in the production of both types of cells and batteries is compared to the energy saved and the reduction of CO2 emitted through the usage of each type of battery. The detailed analysis of these two popular technologies provides critical information as residential solar systems become more common. They are compared to their real sustainability in a homestorage photovoltaic buffer application. The storage of electricity generated by photovoltaics battery is performed by battery systems with a typical capacity between 5 and 20 kWh. In this application Lead-Acid an Lithium-Ion batteries are the most common storage technologies. The storage of electricity generated by a 10 kWp PV-generator in combination with a 7,5 kWh battery is analyzed on different levels. The necessary primary energies for Cell productionProduction of the Battery SystemTransport to the customer are compared for Lithium-Ion and Lead-Acid technology. The Energy required for production of one Wh of Battery Capacity on cell level is in Li-ion-Technology 41 kWh Pb-acid-technology 14 kWh. The most energy intensive aspect of Lithium-ion battery production is the coating process. The most energy intensive aspect of Lead-acid battery production is the formation process. Lithium-ion batteries operate nearly 3-times more “energy efficient” with respect to the demand of primary energy for their production. Although Lead-acid cells require much less energy to produce, when usage and system performance are taken into account Li-ion batteries are the winner of this comparison. It is shown that the ecological amortization in the mentioned home storage application happens after only a few months of operation. The Li-Ion storage system starts “to work green” after 0.6 years and with the Lead-acid storage system after 1.8 years of operation. Figure 1

ICP-MS Determination of Potential Toxic Elements in Soil and Rice (Oryza sativa L.) and Related Health Risk

High-resolution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was applied to determine potential toxic element pollution in rice and paddy soil in a lead-acid battery production area. The contamination levels of chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and lead (Pb) in rice and soil at three sampling areas were determined, and the uptake mechanism of Cr, Cd, and Pb from soil to rice grain was preliminarily analyzed. The results show that the range of potential toxic elements in rice concentrations is 3.914–11.788, 0.057–1.215, and 0.187–1.585 mg kg−1 for Cr, Cd, and Pb, respectively. For the paddy soils, Cd concentration is 0.610 mg kg−1, which exceeds 0.300 mg kg−1, a value recommended by Chinese Environmental Quality. Bioaccumulation factor (BAF, an index of the ability of plant to absorb a particular metal with respect to its concentration in the soil substrate) values of Cr, Cd, and Pb were less than 1 in all rice samples, suggesting that the bioavailability of these metals was relatively low in rice. The correlations between BAF values with organic matter (OM) and pH were calculated to find the mobility and availability of potential toxic elements in soil. At last, the estimated daily intake (EDI) dose was determined to evaluate the health risk to local population via consumption of rice contaminated with Cr, Cd, and Pb. This study indicated that the accumulation and translocation of potential toxic elements from soil to rice could cause the health risk for the local population.

Comparison Study of Environmental Impacts between Mid (CML) and End Point (Eco 95) Methods for Babel Lead Acid Battery Production Processes

In this research, quantitative analysis, comparison of the environmental impacts for Iraqi Babel Lead acid battery (capacity of 135 Amps/hr) throughout the production processes is conducted for 2012 year, according to the ISO (14040-14043) series of standards. Two impact assessment methods employed are; Centre of Environmental Studies (CML–midpoint) and (Eco 95-endpoint). Chain Management Life Cycle Analysis [CMLCA] software is used to process and generate the collected data. In CML (mid-point) method four potential environmental impact categories are; [Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification, Eutrophication, and Human toxicity], while Eco 95 (endpoint) method evaluates six categories of environmental impact are; [Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification, Eutrophication, Heavy metals, Summer, and Winter Smog]. Results generated according to CML method reveal that formation process as the highest contributor to GWP by (26%), Eco 95 declared contribution to the GWP of the same process by (4%). Through CML (mid-point) the assembly process is identified as having the most significant impact on acidification by (50%), while Eco 95 method quantify acidification for the same process by (4%). Human toxicity is allocated by (60%) contribution in the assembly process by CML method, whereas the same process is identified as the most hazardous process of (93%) contribution heavy metals impact is, and winter smog (3%) according to Eco 95 method. Formation process is the highest contributor to Eutrophication according CML method, while Eutiphication is not of concern, according to (Eco 95) for this process. It is concluded that the environmental impacts of Babel battery spread over the production processes and every process have certain environmental impact category (nerveless the quantifying method). Therefore, it is recommended using both methods to expose all the environmental categories, and to control the environmental aspects of the company, also it is recommended to use new technologies for battery production that have less impact on the environment.

Study on the Environmental Risk Assessment of Lead-Acid Batteries

Lead-acid batteries were widely used as important power supply devices that include automotive, uninterruptible power supply (UPS), telecommunication systems and various traction duties. According to statistics, approximately 3 million tons waste batteries are generated every year and the production of lead-acid batteries will continue to rise even more sharply with sustained and rapid development of economy. Lead-acid batteries were consisted of electrolyte, lead and lead alloy grid, lead paste, and organics and plastics, which include lots of toxic, hazardous, flammable, explosive substances that can easily create potential risk sources. The materials contained in lead-acid batteries may bring about lots of pollution accidents such as fires, explosions, poisoning and leaks, contaminating environment and damaging ecosystem. The environmental risk assessment was required to be studied further in view of the diversity, emergency, and the serious consequences of the environmental accidents that may caused by lead-acid batteries. The environment risk assessment was presented in this paper particularly, the framework of environmental risk assessment on lead-acid batteries was established and methods for analyzing and forecasting the environmental risk of lead-acid batteries were selected. The work procedure included identifying accident, analyzing risk, pollution forecast and defensive measures. By analysing the environmental risk assessment of lead-acid batteries, the study supplied direction for the preventive measures according to the forecast results of lead-acid batteries. The basic theories were provided for the safe use of lead-acid batteries.

Environmental Protection Technology of Modern Lead-Acid Battery Production

An overview of environmental protection technologies of modern lead-acid battery production is presented. Types of pollutants of lead acid battery in the production process are discussed and analyzed. Focusing on the different types of pollutants produced in different processes, and several environmental machines used in lead-acid battery are specifically introduced.

Environmental Protection Technology of Modern Lead-Acid Battery Production

An overview of environmental protection technologies of modern lead-acid battery production is presented. Types of pollutants of lead acid battery in the production process are discussed and analyzed. Focusing on the different types of pollutants produced in different processes, and several environmental machines used in lead-acid battery are specifically introduced

Lead exposure assessment from study near a lead-acid battery factory in China

The production of lead-acid battery in China covered about one-third of the world total output and there are more than 2000 lead-acid battery factories. They may cause the major environment lead pollution. Blood lead levels of several hundreds of residents were over 100μg/L due to the waste discharges from a lead-acid battery factory in Heyuan, Guangdong province. This study aimed to find out the environmental lead sources, the human lead exposure pathways, and the amplitudes from a lead-acid battery factory. The study results showed that lead levels in soil, dust, tree leaves and human blood declined with the distances increased from the production site. Twenty nine of 32 participants had blood lead levels of over 100μg/L with an exceptional high value of 639μg/L for one child. This result suggested that the lead-acid battery production from this factory has caused the elevated lead levels in its neighboring environment and residents. Dust intake was the dominant exposure pathway for humans (over 90%). The lead levels found in adult and toddler (6.19 and 50.1μg/kg/d, respectively) in the polluted area were far higher than the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of 25μg/kg body weight (translated into 3.5μg/kg/d), which was established by the joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee. Blood lead levels within the family members were strongly correlated with the house dust lead levels. Our results in this study suggested that further studies in this area should be performed to assess human exposure and relevant human health risks from living close to lead-acid battery factories.

Red lead: understanding red lead in lead−acid batteries

The use of red lead in battery plates is not very well known to a large segment of the lead–acid battery industry. Historically, it was used in pasted and tubular positive plates in order to improve their formation time and enhance deep-cycle performance. Although the use of red lead has diminished over the last few decades, many companies are again considering the use of red lead in their plates. This article aims to give manufacturers a solid knowledge of the properties of red lead, including production and handling methods. Further, it presents an understanding of the influence in battery production, battery performance, and the cost-saving potential of red lead usage. The first part of the article is intended to explain the chemical and physical properties and fields of usage of red lead. The most widely used red lead product specifications for the battery industry are presented and explained. In the second part, the typical equipment for the production of red lead is reviewed. Raw material requirements, material handling equipment, a red lead furnace and milling are presented and discussed. The reader is taken through the production of a typical batch of red lead. Operating charts, process control data and system photos will help to understand the production process. The final part outlines an overall view of process requirements and identifies stages in lead–acid battery production that will be influenced by the use of red lead.

Strategies for enhancing lead–acid battery production and performance

This paper is a record of the replies given by an expert panel to questions asked by delegates to the Eighth Asian Battery Conference. The subjects are as follows. Analysis of lead and lead compounds: accuracy; critical aspects of sampling. Grid alloys: influence of tin on microstructure and grain size; optimum combination of grid-alloy technologies for automotive batteries. Battery manufacture and design: quality-assurance monitoring; acid-spray treatment of plates; efficiency of tank formation; control of α-PbO 2/β-PbO 2 ratio; PbO 2 conversion level; positive/negative plate ratio; amount and type of separator for valve-regulated technology. Battery performance: use of cadmium reference electrode; influence of positive/negative plate ratio; local action; negative-plate expanders; gas-recombination catalysts; selective discharge of negative and positive plates.