Lead-acid Battery Manufacturing Research Articles

Patching sustainability loopholes within the lead-acid battery industry of Bangladesh: An environmental and occupational health risk perspective

Despite global efforts to phase out lead (Pb) products, their widespread use persists, notably in the lead-acid battery (LAB) industry. This trend is also evident in Bangladesh, where sustainability concerns surrounding the largely unexplored, yet highly vibrant informal sector remain unaddressed. It is imperative to unravel a comprehensive picture to implement targeted formalization strategies effectively at a meso level. This study aims to achieve this by using a substance flow analysis (SFA), life cycle assessment (LCA), and human health risk assessment (HHRA) approach, to highlight the environmental impacts and health risks associated with the industry's thriving informal sector. This sector emerges as a towering colossus of Pb pollution in the country, with a striking 86 % of the total Pb loss occurring from informal recycling alone. Informal electric vehicle (EV) LAB manufacturing is identified as a major contributor to land use, global warming, fine particulate matter formation, and terrestrial acidification impacts, with global warming and fine particulate matter contributing about 40 % each to the total human health impacts. Workers in the informal sector, the most overlooked victims of this industry, face alarming risks of non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic toxicity-related diseases, with oral exposure route making up 90.8 % of the total non-carcinogenic risks. As developing nations grapple with similar waste management challenges, often exacerbated by their socio-economic and political contexts, these findings underscore the urgent need for a robust national action plan. Collaboration among governmental entities and international stakeholders is imperative to execute targeted cleanup initiatives and uphold compliance with international environmental and public health standards.

Assessment Of Occupational Exposure To Lead, Cadmium And Arsenic In A Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing And Recycling Plant In Algeria

Introduction: Plants manufacturing and recycling lead-acid batteries emit this metal and other metal and metalloid particles into the air, which can be transported and deposited on various surfaces, exposing workers and even nearby populations. Occupational metal contamination is a cause for concern because of their potential accumulation in the environment and in living organisms, leading to long-term toxic effects.The aim of this study was to assess Cd, As and Pb levels in the whole blood of 170 people working in a lead battery manufacturing and recycling plant in eastern Algeria, and in that of 50 non-occupationally exposed controls. Metal compound levels were determined using ICP-MS. Lead was the most prominent element in the workers' blood (521.24 µg/L) compared to the controls (23.08 µg/L), confirming that lead exposure is significantly higher compared to other elements. The average and median concentrations of Cd and As in the blood did not exceed the biological exposure indices for both populations. Cadmium levels were significantly higher in the blood of exposed workers compared to the controls. However, there was no significant correlation between blood lead levels and cadmium levels in exposed subjects. For arsenic, although the mean and median values ​​were within the normal range, the maximum and 95th percentile exceeded the normal value. There was also no significant correlation between lead and arsenic concentrations in the blood of workers. The results of this study highlight the alarming working conditions that the employees of this factory face.These conditions lead to significant lead exposure and potentially to other elements such as Cd and As.

Assessment of Occupational Exposure to Lead, Cadmium and Arsenic in a Lead-Acid Battery Manufacturing and Recycling Plant in Algeria

Introduction: Plants manufacturing and recycling lead-acid batteries emit this metal and other metal and metalloid particles into the air, which can be transported and deposited on various surfaces, exposing workers and even nearby populations. Occupational metal contamination is a cause for concern because of their potential accumulation in the environment and in living organisms, leading to long-term toxic effects. Objective: The aim of this study was to assess Cd, As and Pb levels in the whole blood of 170 people working in a lead battery manufacturing and recycling plant in eastern Algeria, and in that of 50 non-occupationally exposed controls. Results: Metal compound levels were determined using ICP-MS. Lead was the most prominent element in the workers’ blood (521.24 µg/L) compared to the controls (23.08 µg/L), confirming that lead exposure is significantly higher compared to other elements. The average and median concentrations of Cd and As in the blood did not exceed the biological exposure indices for both populations. Cadmium levels were significantly higher in the blood of exposed workers compared to the controls. However, there was no significant correlation between blood lead levels and cadmium levels in exposed subjects. For arsenic, although the mean and median values were within the normal range, the maximum and 95th percentile exceeded the normal value. There was also no significant correlation between lead and arsenic concentrations in the blood of workers. The results of this study highlight the alarming working conditions that the employees of this factory face. Conclusion: These conditions lead to significant lead exposure and potentially to other elements such as Cd and As.

Spatial Heterogeneity of China’s Environmental Regulation on Industrial Pollution: Evidence from a Top–Down Environmental Enforcement Action

To obtain precise information about enterprises’ pollution control and take corresponding environmental protection measures is the key to preventing and controlling industrial pollution. Taking the lead–acid battery industry as an example, this paper employs data from the Environmental Enforcement Action to analyze the urban–rural and inter-provincial distributions of pollution-intensive enterprises and to quantitatively verify the spatial differences in China’s environmental regulation on industrial pollution. The study finds that lead–acid battery manufacturing enterprises are mainly located in rural areas instead of urban areas; most pollution-intensive firms located in industrial parks, especially those approved by governments below the provincial level. The multivariate logistic model analysis finds that environmental regulation in urban districts is more strict than that in towns and villages, while the suburban areas are the laxest; environmental regulation in national-level development zones is more strict than that in provincial-level development zones, while zones below the provincial level are the laxest. In general, the environmental regulation is stricter in urban areas than in rural areas, and stricter in clustered space than in scattered space, while most inter-provincial environmental regulations have no significant differences. Local governments should effectively allocate conventional environmental law enforcement resources and shift the focus of law enforcement downwards to parks below the provincial level, and on suburbs and townships.

Correlation of Lead Exposure on Calcium Metabolism, Vitamin D3 in Battery Manufacturing Workers

Background: Chronic lead exposure from the lead-acid–battery manufacturing process has been linked to a variety of health effects, including dental health, cardiovascular disease risk, Matrix–gamma– carboxy glutamic acid protein (MGP) polymorphism, oxidative stress, immunological, genotoxicity, reproductive, neuropsychological, and pteridine metabolism with neurotransmitters synthesized.
 Aim of the Work: effects of lead exposure on calcium metabolism in battery workers.
 Subjects and Methods: The present study will be conducted in Department of Biochemistry, Index Medical College and research center, Indore. A total of 100 lead exposed battery workers and 100 aged (20-60 yr) matched non lead exposed controls. Blood sample was withdrawn from the anticubital vein and centrifuged to obtain serum after that serum was quantitatively analyzed for lead level, calcium, phosphorous and vitamin D3. 
 Result and Conclusion: In lead-exposed battery workers, correlation analysis revealed a strong negative connection between blood lead levels and serum vitamin D levels. Similarly, serum calcium levels were found to be inversely linked with blood lead levels.
 Keywords: Battery workers, Lead

Reduction of acid mist emission in formation process of Automotive lead acid battery manufacturing industry by means of an electrolyte additive

The sulphuric acid mist released during plate formation process of Automotive Lead Acid Battery manufacturing Industry is a major concern to environmental sustainability and there is a strong environmental drive to control its emission into the work environment. The present work is mainly aimed to reduce the acid mist emission at source itself without affecting the product performance. A “simple and salient” method to reduce the acid mist was carried out using an organic surfactant namely, “Sodium Lauryl Sulphate (SLS)” as an additive to the acid electrolyte. The best method of adding SLS into the electrolyte is by adding it to the required volume of electrolyte that was already filled. After addition of SLS, batteries are subjected to regular formation process. It is noteworthy that acid mist was noticeably reduced i.e. as high as 40% with the addition of SLS to the electrolyte. The study reveal that SLS is a cost effective and viable technique for acid mist reduction and therefore by making manufacturing of Automotive Lead Acid Batteries system in compliance with OSHA's regulations.

Evaluation of some heavy metal levels in blood of lead acid battery manufacturing factory workers in Nnewi, Nigeria

Today, industrialization has been implicated in the generation of certain compounds which are potentially hazardous to human life. This is a cross sectional study designed to evaluate some heavy metal levels in blood of lead acid battery manufacturing factory workers in Nnewi, Nigeria. A total of 39 apparently healthy individuals in lead acid battery manufacturing factory aged between 19 and 56 years and 79 control individuals (comprising of 39 control individuals from Nnewi (N) and 40 control individuals from Elele (E) respectively) aged between 18 and 44 years were recruited for the study. Demographic data and body mass index (BMI) of participants were obtained using structured questionnaire and thereafter, 5ml of venous blood sample was collected from each individual for the evaluation of heavy metal levels (Pb, Ni, Cu, Zn, As and Se) using atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Results showed that the factory workers had an average length of service (LOS) of 7.70±0.86 years and BMI which did not differ significantly when compared with the control groups (control N and E individuals) respectively (p>0.05). However, elevated levels of Ni, As and Pb and decreased levels of Cu, Zn and Se were observed in the blood of the factory workers compared with control N and E individuals respectively (p<0.05). Therefore, this study has shown that these individuals may be prone to heavy metal toxicity and possible depletion on some vital micronutrients which may have grave health consequences for individuals dwelling in this area.

Assessment of histopathological effect of factory effluents on the liver and kidney tissues of chickens (Gallus gallus domestica) reared around factory sites in Nnewi Metropolis, Anambra State, Nigeria

Exposure to factory effluents comes with deleterious consequences. The purpose of this study was to assess the histopathological effect of factory effluents on the liver and kidney tissues of chickens (Gallus gallus domestica) reared around factory sites in Nnewi Metropolis, Anambra State, Nigeria. A total of twenty-nine chicks comprising of sixteen chicks exposed to factory sites and thirteen non-exposed chicks were grown to adult birds (chickens) for the study and were allowed to feed from the surrounding homeland of the factories including lead acid battery manufacturing factory (A), metal fabricating factory (B) and metal forging factory (C) respectively until they were aged between four and five months as adult birds (chickens) for the study. The chickens were sacrificed to obtain the liver and kidney tissues for histological analyses. The histopathological evaluation of the effect of the factory effluents on the liver and kidney tissues of birds reared around the four factories (A-D) and control were done by microscopic examination of haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained sections. The results obtained in factory A, B and C showed widening of the liver central vein and thickening of the vessels with invasion of the surrounding areas by chronic inflammatory cells as against the controls which showed fairly normal liver tissues with normal liver parenchyma cells with a central vein containing blood cells. Also, the photomicrographs of the kidney tissues of birds reared around factory A, B and C showed evidence of marked glomerulo-nephritis and hypercellularity with evidence of glomerulosclerosis and hyalinization of the glomeruli as against the normal glomeruli and tubules found in the control birds. These results indicate that the environment where these birds are reared is a potential threat to the lives of the birds reared around these factories. Keywords: Factory site, Factory effluents, Liver, Kidney, Chicken (Gallus gallus domestica), Nnewi metropolis.

Source Apportionment of Groundwater Pollution using Unmix and Positive Matrix Factorization

Receptor models are used to understand the attributes of groundwater contaminants by recognizing their sources and evaluating the contribution from each source to receptor concentrations. Two receptor models, Unmix and Positive matrix factorization (PMF), were applied to the data obtained from 41 sampling points on 20 parameters, in order to identify and apportion the pollution sources to groundwater quality in Peenya region of Bengaluru. Overall six and seven sources were identified by Unmix and PMF models, respectively. Most groundwater quality variables were found to be influenced primarily by pollution from chromium electroplating, sewage, geology of the area and lead acid battery manufacturing units located in the study area. The models could recognize significant sources adding to groundwater quality in the region with most of them being anthropogenic due to the presence of industrial activity. It was observed that both models gave good outcomes with regard to their capacity to repeat measured concentrations with fundamentally the same slopes in a large portion of the cases, yet with the PMF model demonstrating the best correlation and the nearest slope to unit. Receptor models are regularly applied to distinguish source contributions. The dissimilarities among the results of various models are essential to better interpret source apportionment.

Evaluation of the status and the relationship between essential and toxic elements in the hair of occupationally exposed workers.

Lead poisoning is a common disease in lead-acid battery manufacturing industries. Workers can be also exposed to various toxic elements present as contaminants or used as catalysts to enhance batteries' performances. In the present study, levels of essential and toxic elements and their relationship were assessed by analyzing scalp hair samples of 52 workers in a Pb battery manufacturing plant. The impact of some confounding factors on hair mineral contents was also investigated. For comparative purposes, nonoccupationally exposed subjects were selected as controls. All elements were determined by triple quadrupole ICP-MS. The results indicated significantly higher levels of Pb, Sb, As, and Cd in the hair of workers when compared to controls (p< 0.01). The Spearman correlation test revealed significant correlations between Pb/Cr, Pb/Mn, Pb/Ni, Pb/As, Pb/Se, Pb/Sb, Hg/As, Hg/Sn, Hg/Sb, Sb/Cr, Sb/As, Sb/Se, Sb/Cd, Sb/Sn, Sn/Cr, Sn/As, Sn/Cd, Cd/As, Se/Ni, As/Cr, Ni/Cr, Ni/Mn, and Mn/Cr in the hair of workers and Pb/Cr, Pb/Mn, Pb/Ni, Pb/Cd, Mn/Ni, Mn/Cd, Cd/Ni, As/Ni, Sn/Ni, Sb/Sn, and Hg/Sn in the hair of controls. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed linear dependence including Cr = f(Pb, Ni, Sb), Mn = f(Ni, Sb), Ni = f(Mn, Cr, -Cd) (Cd was negatively correlated, β< 0), As = f(Sn, Sb, Hg), Se = f(Ni); Sn = f(As), Sb = f(As, Mn, -Hg, Sn, Se, -Ni) (Hg and Ni were negatively correlated), Hg = f(As, -Sb, Sn) (Sb was negatively correlated), and Pb = f(Cr). The result of this study can be very useful to explain the interactions between elements or for comparison studies when establishing reference ranges or monitoring elements in workplaces.

Electricity management in the production of lead-acid batteries: The industrial case of a production plant in Colombia

Abstract Electricity stands as the main energy used for lead-acid battery (LAB) manufacturing. This study introduces an energy management methodology to address the electricity consumption in lead-acid battery plants, improving efficiency standards. The “equivalent battery production” is introduced to define the energy performance criteria to be met in the different production sections of the battery plant. The methodology combines the guidelines of the ISO 50001 standard with the energy management framework for manufacturing plants. The result is a structured approach for detecting inefficiencies and pinpointing their sources. The management methodology was implemented during 2016. In the formation area 222 MWh were saved during 2016. This saving accounts for 3.9% less electricity than forecasted by the energy baseline of the area. Additionally, the emission of some 40 tCO2.eq. associated with the generation of the electricity production were saved. Moreover, at plant level 424 MWh were saved, which account for 3.6% less electricity than forecasted by the energy baseline of the plant. In total, around 76 tCO2.eq. were saved as a result of the electricity savings in the plant.

Causal tree analysis for quality control of the lead acid battery manufacturing process

Causal tree analysis for quality control of the lead acid battery manufacturing process

Particle size distributions of lead measured in battery manufacturing and secondary smelter facilities and implications in setting workplace lead exposure limits

ABSTRACTInhalation plays an important role in exposures to lead in airborne particulate matter in occupational settings, and particle size determines where and how much of airborne lead is deposited in the respiratory tract and how much is subsequently absorbed into the body. Although some occupational airborne lead particle size data have been published, limited information is available reflecting current workplace conditions in the U.S. To address this data gap, the Battery Council International (BCI) conducted workplace monitoring studies at nine lead acid battery manufacturing facilities (BMFs) and five secondary smelter facilities (SSFs) across the U.S. This article presents the results of the BCI studies focusing on the particle size distributions calculated from Personal Marple Impactor sampling data and particle deposition estimates in each of the three major respiratory tract regions derived using the Multiple-Path Particle Dosimetry model. The BCI data showed the presence of predominantly larger-sized particles in the work environments evaluated, with average mass median aerodynamic diameters (MMADs) ranging from 21–32 µm for the three BMF job categories and from 15–25 µm for the five SSF job categories tested. The BCI data also indicated that the percentage of lead mass measured at the sampled facilities in the submicron range (i.e., <1 µm, a particle size range associated with enhanced absorption of associated lead) was generally small. The estimated average percentages of lead mass in the submicron range for the tested job categories ranged from 0.8–3.3% at the BMFs and from 0.44–6.1% at the SSFs. Variability was observed in the particle size distributions across job categories and facilities, and sensitivity analyses were conducted to explore this variability. The BCI results were compared with results reported in the scientific literature. Screening-level analyses were also conducted to explore the overall degree of lead absorption potentially associated with the observed particle size distributions and to identify key issues associated with applying such data to set occupational exposure limits for lead.

Analysis Approach of the Formation Current Profiles Impact on the Lead Acid Battery Manufacturing

Analysis Approach of the Formation Current Profiles Impact on the Lead Acid Battery Manufacturing

Morphological and Elemental analysis of the effluent of Lead-acid battery manufacturing

Excessive release of Lead (Pb) contaminated effluent into the water bodies become the lead poisonous. This waste water is the main source for the transfer of Lead (Pb) into the living organisms. Lead (Pb) is a poisonous heavy metal that accumulates in the tissues of organisms when it is taken excessively through drinking water. This bioaccumulation disturbs functional activity of the tissues in living organisms. In this research the morphology of the lead (Pb) compound precipitate powder was analyzed using Scanning electron microscope (SEM). This precipitate was also analyzed for the elemental composition using Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), which is coupled with SEM. From the EDX results, Weight and Atomic percentages of Lead (Pb) in the precipitate were 62.81 and 13.05 respectively in spectrum 1 and 69.32 and 17.51 respectively in the spectrum 2. And also the concentration of lead (Pb) was determined as 1.21 mg/L using Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission Spectrometry (ICP-AES). Temperature, pH, Chemical oxygen demand (COD), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and turbidity of the effluent were also measured as 140C, 2.34, 448 mg/L, 173 mg/L and 163.4 NTU respectively.

Temporal and spatial characteristics of lead emissions from the lead-acid battery manufacturing industry in China

An inventory of lead emissions was established for the lead-acid battery (LAB) manufacturing industry in China from 2000 to 2014. The lead emissions from the LAB manufacturing industry increased from 133 t in 2000 to a peak at 281 t in 2010 with the rapid development of LAB industry. Since 2011, a mandatory national clean action on LAB industry and a series of retrofitting measures have been implemented in China. As a result, more than 80% of small and low-efficient LAB manufacturers were closed, and technical-environmental performance of the industry has been improved significantly. Thus the lead emissions from the industry declined to 113 t in 2014. Geographically, lead emissions were attributed to several provinces with intensive LAB manufacturers, including Zhejiang, Guangdong, Jiangsu, Shandong, and Hebei Province. Spatial transfer of the LAB manufacturing industry from developed areas to developing areas in China was manifest due to strict environmental regulation, posing potential environmental risks to the areas undertaking the industry transfer. In light of the effectiveness of the national clean action, the LAB manufacturing industry will reduce lead emissions further by implementing the entry criteria strictly, adopting policy of total lead emissions control, and establishing a long-term regulatory mechanism for LAB manufacturers. The local authorities in some developing areas should improve abilities of environmental supervision and environmental risk prevention to deal with the spillover of lead emissions.

SELECTION OF REVERSE LOGISTICS SERVICE PROVIDER (RLSP) USING ANALYTICAL NETWORK PROCESS (ANP): A CASE STUDY OF AN AUTOMOTIVE COMPANY

&lt;p&gt;Activities in reverse logistics implementation are practiced extensively by lead acid battery manufacturing industries. One important problem faced by the management in the battery manufacturing industry is the regular supply of spent batteries/ lead from the end users in the supply chain management of battery production. The Analytic Network Process (ANP) based decision model presented in this work structures the problem related to options in selection of a reverse logistics service provider for supply of EOL lead acid batteries in a hierarchical form and links the determinants, dimensions, and enablers of the reverse logistics service provider with alternatives available to the decision maker. A reverse logistics service provider evaluation problem has been formulated that includes two primary tasks: preliminary screening of the RL service providers by a team of managers and an Analytic Network Process (ANP) based model for final selection. The proposed approach, therefore, links the financial and non-financial, tangible and intangible, internal and external factors, thus providing a holistic framework for the selection of an alternative for the reverse logistics operations for EOL batteries. The results of the present work indicate that acceptable cost between the user and the RL service provider companies is the most important determinant which influences the final selection process. This approach also enables the decision-makers to better understand the complex relationships of the relevant attributes in the decision making which may subsequently improve the reliability of the decision.&lt;/p&gt;

The Relationship between Occupational Exposure to Lead and Hearing Loss in a Cross-Sectional Survey of Iranian Workers.

Ototoxic effect of exposure to lead has been reported by many researchers. This study was undertaken with a view to investigate the relationship between blood lead level (BLL) and hearing loss in workers in a lead-acid battery manufacturing plant in Tehran, Iran. In a cross-sectional study, 609 male workers were recruited from different locations in the factory. Association between BLL and hearing loss in different frequencies were measured. Relationships were analyzed by logistic regressions. Statistical significance was defined as p-value <0.05. Six hundred nine male workers with mean age 40 ± 7 years and mean noise exposure level of 80 (75-85) dB were evaluated. BLLs were categorized into four quartiles, and hearing loss in each quartile was compared to the first one. In our regression models, BLL was associated significantly with high frequency hearing loss, adjusted odds ratios for the comparison of the fourth, third, and second quartiles to the first one are respectively: 3.98 (95% CI: 1.63-9.71, p < 0.00), 3.05 (95% CI: 1.28-7.26, p < 0.01), and 2.89 (95% CI: 1.11-7.51, p < 0.03). This study showed a dose-response relationship between BLL and hearing loss, after adjusting for potential confounders (age, body mass index, work duration, smoking, and occupational noise exposure) in logistic regressions. It is concluded that periodic hearing assessment by pure tone audiometry in workers exposed to lead should be recommended. However, additional studies are required to clarify the mechanisms of lead ototoxicity.

Leaching of Spent Lead Paste by Oxalate and Sodium Oxalate Solution and Prepared Leady Oxide Powder in Nitrogen and Air for Lead Acid Battery

An environmental friendly recycling process is investigated to recover lead as leady oxide from spent lead-acid battery paste. In this study, sodium oxalate as a desulfurizer and oxalate acid as a reducing agent have been used to leach three major components (PbSO4, PbO2 and PbO) respectively to obtain the optimal reaction conditions for real industrial spent lead paste leaching. In this sodium oxalate and oxalate acid leaching system, no extra reducing agent was needed any more to reduce PbO2. The results show that sodium oxalate exhibits much higher desulfurization efficiency for PbSO4, and PbO2 can be reduced easily in oxalate acid solution under the optimum conditions with an ratio of 1.25:1, an ratio of 2:1 at 60°C for 70 min. Lead oxalate precursor is calcined in air or N2, porous α-PbO is the only product in air and the calcination products are PbO and metallic Pb in N2 confirmed by morphology and structure characterizations, which is appropriate for lead-acid battery manufacturing. The recycling products were reused directly in lead-acid battery assembling as positive active materials and the assembled batteries show a good cyclic stability in 50 discharge/charge cycles.

Screening and assessment of solidification/stabilization amendments suitable for soils of lead-acid battery contaminated site

Lead exposure via ingestion of soil and dust generally occurs at lead-acid battery manufacturing and recycling sites. Screening solidification/stabilization (S/S) amendments suitable for lead contaminated soil in an abandoned lead-acid battery factory site was conducted based on its chemical forms and environmental risks. Twelve amendments were used to immobilize the Pb in soil and assess the solidification/stabilization efficiency by toxicity leaching tests. The results indicated that three amendments, KH2PO4 (KP), KH2PO4:oyster shell power=1:1 (by mass ratio; SPP), and KH2PO4:sintered magnesia=1:1 (by mass ratio; KPM) had higher remediation efficiencies that led to a 92% reduction in leachable Pb with the addition of 5% amendments, while the acid soluble fraction of Pb (AS-Pb) decreased by 41–46% and the residual fraction (RS-Pb) increased by 16–25%. The S/S costs of the three selected amendments KP, SPP, and KPM could be controlled to $22.3 per ton of soil when the Pb concentration in soil ranged from 2000 to 3000mg/kg. The results of this study demonstrated that KP, SPP, and KPM can effectively decrease bioavailability of Pb. These findings could provide basis for decision-making of S/S remediation of lead-acid battery contaminated sites.