Media Law Research Articles

Freedom of Press in Myanmar

Every person has to enjoy freedom of expressing their opinion and information and they also have the duties to refrain from affecting the right and reputation of other persons. Since it is not an absolute right, the person who practices the right to freedom of press needs to respect the rights and reputations of others. This paper used a qualitative approach by reviewing relevant literature such as international legal instruments, domestic laws and reports regarding freedom of expression. This research mainly based on primary and secondary resources because the required information is obtained from Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), General Comment No.34, Johannesburg Principles on National Security and some Myanmar laws such as the Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the Telecommunication Law 2013, the News Media Law 2014, the Official Secrets Act 1923 and the Unlawful Association Act 1908. Although Section 354(a) of the Constitution of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar provides that every citizen has a right to express and publish freely their convictions and opinions, many people including journalists and news media men can be prosecuted under the provisions of the existing laws. Thus, when many people posted information in their own pages, they have been charged with the provisions of the existing laws. Therefore, the existing laws in Myanmar which contain restricted provisions for freedom of press should be repealed or amended and new laws should be enacted in line with the International Human Right standards.

DIGITAL INTELLIGENCE: CONSUMPTIVE BEHAVIOR REDUCTION EFFORTS GLOBAL SOCIETY AGAINST HOAX INFORMATION

The development of information technology contributes to creating media diversity. This rapid development has triggered a shift in the availability of access from limited access to abundant media. The birth of cyber media is one sign of this diversity. However, not everything that develops has a positive impact, but many audiences complain about the reality that has entered the era of a world crowded with media. The existence of this phenomenon gives rise to freedom in the creation and dissemination of information which leads to the delivery of irresponsible messages. So that the phenomenon of the spread of fake news or hoaxes is increasing significantly in Indonesia and even in the world. Unfortunately, most netizens who take part in this new media era do not pay attention to cyber media law and ethics. In addition, they also lack knowledge about what, why and how media literacy is applied. From the emergence of this problem, it is important for netizens and audiences to know the importance of digital intelligence, as an effort to reduce the consumptive behavior of the global community in consuming information from hoax crimes.. Keywords: Cyber Media, Hoax, Digital Intelligence

Temperature-Dependent Dielectric Relaxation in Ionic Acetamide Deep Eutectics: Partial Viscosity Decoupling and Explanations from the Simulated Single-Particle Reorientation Dynamics and Hydrogen-Bond Fluctuations.

We report here temperature-dependent (293 ≤ T (K) ≤ 336) dielectric relaxation (DR) measurements of (acetamide + LiBr/NO3-/ClO4-) deep eutectic solvents (DESs) in the frequency window of 0.2 ≤ ν (GHz) ≤ 50 and explore, via molecular dynamics simulations, the relative roles for the collective single-particle reorientational relaxations and the H-bond dynamics of acetamide in the measured DR response. In addition, DR measurements of neat molten acetamide were performed. Recorded DR spectra of these DESs require multi-Debye fits and produce well-separated DR time scales that are spread over several picoseconds to ∼1 ns. Simulations suggest DR time scales derive contributions from both the collective reorientational () relaxation and structural H-bond (CHB(t)) dynamics of acetamide. A good correlation between the measured and simulated activation energies further reveals a strong connection between the measured DR and the simulated and CHB(t). Average DR times exhibit a strong fractional viscosity dependence, suggesting substantial microheterogeneity in these media. Simulations of and CHB(t) reveal strong stretched exponential relaxations with a stretching exponent, 0.4 ≤ β ≤ 0.7. The ratio between the average reorientational correlation times of first and second ranks, , deviates appreciably from Debye's law for homogeneous media. Importantly, a pronounced translation-rotation decoupling between the simulated reorientation and center-of-mass diffusion times was observed.

Dear reader,

This is the thirtieth issue of Juridica International. The first was published back in 1996, and, in general, one issue has been published each year since then. While 2007, 2008, 2014, and 2017 saw the publication of two issues each, no year has failed to feature. Though serving as a journal of the University of Tartu, Juridica International is also the only peer-reviewed legal journal published in Estonia to enjoy broad international distribution. Thus, for 26 years, it has been the calling card of Estonian jurisprudence on the world stage. However, it has been more than that. The involvement of foreign authors is just as important as the aim of providing Estonian authors with an opportunity to participate in international scientific discussion. There is every reason to be proud of the fact that the journal’s 30 issues have featured authors from 25 other countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, United Kingdom, Hungary, Italy, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden, Ukraine, and the USA. Among the authors are many who are in the uppermost echelon of the world’s leading professors in their field. In its first years, one of the main goals for Juridica International was to introduce and analyse the legal reforms carried out in Estonia, which were of vital interest to foreign readers as well; however, this has not been the case for a long time now. Today, the primary focus is on participation in international legal discussion, wherein, alongside the development of national law, great emphasis is placed on European Union law and other cross-border regulation whose reach extends between countries. That said, the purpose of introducing the development of Estonian law and legal thinking at international level has not been discarded. After all, Estonia is still highly noteworthy as a country of successful reforms, not least legal reforms. Therefore, a matter of ongoing interest is whether this country, which has succeeded so well with groundbreaking reforms, can be as successful in a stable situation across the board. The range of topics covered in the 30 issues of Juridica International is very wide; no important area of law has been neglected, and listing all of them would take too long. What could be highlighted above all are topics related to European Union law and the Constitution of Estonia, but also crucial are the writings on many issues related to aspects of the law of obligations, property law, company law, penal law, competition law, personal data protection, media law, medical law, international law, and several other fields. Significant attention has been paid to the possibilities for harmonisation of law and mutual interactions, both between countries and between distinct branches of law. Likewise, the writings have considered key general issues of law, such as its interpretation, the effect of justice policy on legislative drafting, and the protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals. The ability to publish a journal – and a reason to do so – exists only if readers are interested in that journal. What makes me the happiest is that, over the years, readers’ interest has increased and the geographical area within which people read Juridica International has grown. Most certainly, the fact that for quite some time the journal has been available online has contributed to this. A big ‘thank you’ to all of the readers! I also want to thank every one of the authors, the members of the editorial board, and my colleagues who have made it possible to publish 30 quality issues of Juridica International. I especially wish to highlight the contribution of the foreign members of the editorial board – professors Christian von Bar, Werner Krawietz (1933–2019), Erik Nerep, and Thomas Wilhelmsson – whose participation in the board’s work has played an important role in securing the solid international reputation of the journal. I hope for continued enthusiasm on the writers’ part and interest among readers for the next 30 issues!

An Analysis of Challenges in Reporting by Journalists in Conflict Zone: Case Study of Muzaffarabad & Srinagar

Kashmir, an unresolved and longstanding dispute is among the most complicated global conflicts in present world. Due to high number of civilian casualties in the region, issues of human rights abuses are matter of great concern for the international community. Local media, a lone source of ground information is highlighting the human rights issues and facing multiple challenges like censorships, threats and target killings by the parties involved in the conflict. This study aims to explore the situation of freedom of press, challenges and capacity issues of the journalists on both sides of Line of Control (LoC) in reporting context. Journalists from both sides of divided state were interviewed through semi-structured questionnaire to assess the challenges they are facing regarding their reporting assignments. Results showed that journalists working in Indian administered Kashmir (IaK) were facing more serious challenges than journalists in Pakistan administered Kashmir (PaK). These challenges were included unfavorable media environment, lack of access to information, unfriendly media laws and threats to their lives and livelihood.

Political Will and Media Law: A Poland Case Analysis

A significant element of Central and Eastern Europe’s democracies backsliding process turns out to be changes in the media law. These changes are now leading to a decline in media freedom. The article attempts to understand this phenomenon by analyzing the process of legal and policy changes in Poland. In the course of the analysis, the reader’s attention is drawn to three elements that form the mainline of events related to the weakening of media freedom. These are, in turn, (a) the takeover of public media by influencing the staffing of media companies, (b) introducing a new, completely politicized body into the legal order, which duplicates the already existing and partially politicized media authority, and (c) exerting economic and legal pressure on the media independent of the authorities, so that they can be taken over by state-owned companies or businessmen favoring the authorities. As a whole, this decline in media freedom can be viewed as a strategy that antagonizes society.

“Narrative Life” in Film and the Role of Screenwriting Practices

Research Article| October 01 2021 “Narrative Life” in Film and the Role of Screenwriting Practices Chris Dent Chris Dent CHRIS DENT is a scholar investigating the boundary of law and social theory, producing legal research focused on both creativity (around either the regulation of speech or intellectual property) and social theory, specifically the work of Michel Foucault. Dent has taught in the area of media law, and prior to his legal studies, Dent’s interest in film was facilitated by his role as a manager of video libraries. Search for other works by this author on: This Site Google Journal of Film and Video (2021) 73 (3): 47–61. https://doi.org/10.5406/jfilmvideo.73.3.0047 Cite Icon Cite Share Icon Share Facebook Twitter LinkedIn MailTo Permissions Search Site Citation Chris Dent; “Narrative Life” in Film and the Role of Screenwriting Practices. Journal of Film and Video 1 January 2021; 73 (3): 47–61. doi: https://doi.org/10.5406/jfilmvideo.73.3.0047 Download citation file: Zotero Reference Manager EasyBib Bookends Mendeley Papers EndNote RefWorks BibTex toolbar search Search Dropdown Menu toolbar search search input Search input auto suggest filter your search All Scholarly Publishing CollectiveUniversity of Illinois PressJournal of Film and Video Search Advanced Search The text of this article is only available as a PDF. Copyright 2021 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois2021 Article PDF first page preview Close Modal You do not currently have access to this content.

Cybercrime Lawmaking and Human Rights in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has embarked upon an ambitious project of revising a number of laws with a view to entrench human rights and democratic governance. Part of this legal reform program has been the revision of Computer Crime Proclamation No 958/2016. This article examines key aspects of the Draft Computer Crime Proclamation prepared by the Media Law Working Group from a human rights perspective. As it shall be shown in this article, making the cybercrime legal regime human rights friendly has been the overarching objective of the revision project. Most human rights concerns associated with the current cybercrime legislation are, as a result, rectified in the cybercrime Bill. However, the Bill goes overboard in embracing themes that go well beyond the scope of cybercrime legislation. With respect to the overall revision process, the article submits that the process has not been sufficiently inclusive.

Macro and micro analysis on coal-bearing soil slopes instability based on CFD-DEM coupling method.

By combining the discrete element method (DEM) with computational fluid dynamics (CFD), this study proposes a three-dimensional CFD–DEM fluid–solid coupling microscopic computational model for analyzing the micromechanisms of instability and failure in a coal-bearing soil slope during rainfall. The CFD–DEM fluid–solid coupling model indicated that the main failure mode of the coal-bearing soil slopes was rainwater washing, and the slope sliding surface was predicted as an approximately linear segment. The adaptability of this numerical method was verified by comparing its results with those of rain-washed slopes in an outdoor model test. Rainfall changed the microscopic parameters such as the force chain, coordination number, and porosity of the slope soil particles. The porosity of the slope’s top particles increased from 0.35 in the initial state to 0.80 in the unstable state. This change was directly related to the macroscopic mechanics of the slope soil. By analyzing the changes in the microscopic parameters of the particles, the failure evolution law of the coal-bearing soil slopes during rainfall was explored from a microscopic perspective. This study not only provides a theoretical basis for the protection design and construction of coal-bearing soil slopes in the region but can also analyze macroscopic mechanical laws of discrete media from a micro–macro perspective in geotechnical engineering.

Defending Freedom of Expression and Challenging the Press and Media Laws in Lebanon: The Case of the Lebanese Political TV Satire Shows

Lebanon is among the most developed Arab countries concerning freedom of expression, and its press and media are famous for their openness and critical approach toward domestic and Arab affairs. The openness and criticism notwithstanding, there are various restrictions, not always formal ones, on the freedom of expression in Lebanon. While much has been written about Lebanese freedom of expression and media, few researches have concentrated on Lebanese political TV satire. This article aims to examine the limits of freedom of expression in Lebanon, as reflected in the various political TV satire shows. The article examined five satire shows: Basmat Watan, La Youmal, Ma Fi Metlo, Chi.N.N. and Awal ‘Ala Akhir. For each show, the article referred to three controversial issues: the attitude toward politics and politicians; the attitude toward Hezbollah and its weapons; and the attitude toward Lebanese presidents, foreign heads of states and Syria. Focusing on the different Lebanese TV satire shows and these contentious subjects reveals how these shows challenge the press and media laws, break taboos and even, to a certain degree, habituate the Lebanese audience to engage with controversial issues.

КОМПЕТЕНТНІСНА МОДЕЛЬ ЖУРНАЛІСТСЬКОЇ ОСВІТИ В ОЦІНЦІ СТЕЙКХОЛДЕРІВ

<p><strong><em>The purpose</em></strong><em> of the research was to empirically study the correlation between the content of the competency model of journalism education and the competency needs of the media industry.</em></p><p><strong><em>Research methods.</em></strong><em> To achieve this goal, an online survey of stakeholders, offering them a questionnaire with 5 blocks of competencies was conducted: «Instrumental skills», «Journalistic knowledge. Special scientific media knowledge», «Communication competency», «Sectoral / special knowledge and skills» and «Social orientation». The results of the survey were summarised in specific figures and their severity was assessed. Methods of comparative analysis and synthesis were used to evaluate the obtained data.</em></p><p><strong><em>Results.</em></strong><em> Having conducted the research, we concluded that there is a significant gap between the competency model of journalism education and the content of competencies used in practical journalism. The greatest correlation was demonstrated by communication and language competencies, which is due to the functional nature of journalism. The knowledge component of journalism education in the responses of stakeholders is represented mainly by media law, media psychology and a set of fundamental social disciplines. Emphasis is also placed on adaptive competency, the ability to work with sources and verify information.</em></p><p><strong><em>Novelty.</em></strong><em> For the first time, the competencies proposed by the domestic Standard of Higher Education were structured on the basis of the Weischenberg competency model. The obtained differentiated list is offered for evaluation to stakeholders of the media industry. </em></p><p><strong><em>Practical meaning. </em></strong><em>The obtained results and conclusions of the research can be used to optimise the competency model of journalism education.</em></p><p><strong><em>Key words:</em></strong><em> competencies, journalism education, stakeholders, journalists, media workers, media industry.</em></p>

Analysis of plasma sheath propagation attenuation based on ray tracing

AbstractBased on the complex Snell's law of lossy media, a ray tracing method is proposed to study the propagation attenuation characteristics of electromagnetic (EM) waves in plasma sheaths. The plasma sheath is modelled as layered media. This method considers the complex ray characteristics of inhomogeneous plane EM waves, tracks the propagation rays of EM waves in each layer of media, and calculates the propagation attenuation of EM waves in each layer of media according to the propagation direction of the complex rays. The attenuation during numerical cumulative propagation is the total attenuation of EM waves through the plasma sheath. By comparing the results with that obtained from the WKB method, the accuracy of the ray tracing algorithm is proved. The results of the propagation attenuation of a blunt cone model are calculated by the proposed method, and the effects of different parameters on the EM wave propagation attenuation in the plasma sheath are analysed at different heights, velocities, incident angles, and incident positions. Studying the propagation characteristics of EM waves in the plasma sheath is of importance in application for radar target tracking, blackout communication, and other issues.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS AND MEDIA LAW IN FILM INDUSTRY

In India, a host of pressing issues relating to media, entertainment industry has surfaced. With rapid growth and investment, new players on the rise, and swift technological advancements, Intellectual Property Rights (IP) security and regulation has become significant in this sector. This research paper will be focusing majorly on two components, the first amongst them is IP protection which is a civil right that safeguards a person's creation and grants a control over it, to investigate potential gains if used by others and thus, has arisen as a significant concern. As the paper proceeds, it sheds light on its second component, that the Indian entertainment and film industry has experienced rapid growth in recent years and is now considered one of India's fastest-growing industries. The paper further highlights the legal provisions that governs the creation and usage of media. Some of the examples covered under the media regulation are broadcast television, the internet, and print media. Finally, the paper gives a fair and constructive idea on the scope and coverage of various IP principles, such as patents, copyright, designs, and trademarks. It further discusses how media law and IP are interlinked, along with a segment on computer devices, databases, Internet, and cyber laws, are discussed in this paper.

BASICS OF IP AND MEDIA LAW

Intellectual Property Right (IPR) is a criminal proper that protects the creation of a person or organization evolved by the mind or thoughts. Globalization and open marketplace policies have helped IPR to grow and affect the monetary activities in remaining three decades. The present paper essential draws a nexus between IPR and Media Law, where, Copyright is one of the vital rights and protects the rights of creators of creative works, literary works, sound, movies, and related creations. Copyright Law is an advanced domain that includes improvements, inventive creations and intellectual productions in print, audio-visual, sign & symbols or within the virtual forms. Moreover, media platforms along with social media use photos, sounds, scripts, and lots of techniques of communication, other business and personal functions. The paper aims to highlight the basics of IPR and how it safeguards the interests of the IP holders. Further, it sheds light upon the nexus and role of IPR in the Indian Media Industry. Lastly, the paper will provide a fair and constructive analysis by means of discussing various branches of IP, the related legal provisions and various judicial pronouncements by the Supreme Court and the High Courts of India.

Establishing the Copyright Ability of TV Formats in Cross-Border Private Relations

The global market of copyrights on TV formats has been growing and developing since the 1950s but their proper understanding has not been officially consolidated in positive law. The study subject is cross-border relations that identify TV formats as copyrightable intellectual property. The article aims at determining approaches to establishing protectability of foreign TV formats as copyrighted works in different jurisdictions. To attain this end, the authors used formal-legal and comparative-legal methods, as well as methods of legal modeling and historical analysis. Based on the study results, the authors have developed the term "lex media" (media law) to denote the usages that formed in the cross-border circulation of rights to TV formats and determined a list of the main social relations regulated by lex media, its main sources and correlation with lex mercatoria. Due to lex media, TV formats join not only positive copyrights, but also common format rights, and in the transnational relations, TV formats are recognized as a quasi-copyrightable intellectual property.

Online Political Advertising and Disinformation during Elections: Regulatory Framework in the EU and Member States

Online political advertising and its implications for liberal democracies has become a topic of considerable scholarly and regulatory interest in recent years. The report is guided by the question of how online political advertising is regulated in Europe, especially in the context of elections but also more generally. Its aim is to map the existing, and to some extent upcoming, regulatory framework of online political advertising in the EU and in selected Member States of Germany, France, Spain, Ireland and Poland. After a brief analysis of key concepts, the report maps the EU regulation of data protection and electronic commerce, and other complementary regulation within the Union’s competence. Lastly, the report contains the five case studies of Member State election and online media law. While the relevant EU law is in flux with new regulatory initiatives being processed in the fields of data protection, e-commerce and artificial intelligence, uncertainties also remain concerning the interpretation of existing laws, for instance, on data protection obligations and intermediary liability. In turn, the addressed Member States currently a lack proper electoral and media law framework that would systematically take into account the deployment of online services in the dissemination of election propaganda. However, there is increasing attention paid to online services by national regulators that focuses primarily on information disseminated via the largest online services.

Media Representation of the Victims of Terrorist Attacks. An Ethical and Legal Analysis of Articles Published in Le Monde

"The topic of this paper explores the online media representation of the victims of terrorist attacks in relation to the ethical and legal frameworks aimed at protecting the people. Despite the fact that freedom of expression should not be restricted under any circumstances, the news media outlets ought to take into consideration the legal acts, the moral behaviors and ethical principles when publishing and disseminating information about the terrorist attacks. Journalists should aim to pursue the purpose of this profession with the intent of remaining objective and upright while respecting the human rights. The research of this paper focuses on the interdependence between journalism, ethics and law by analyzing how Le Monde covered some of the terrorist attacks which happened in Europe. The importance of ethics in journalism had been acknowledged by analyzing the role of the regulatory organizations for the press, as well as the professional standards which were set in order to guide the journalists and protect the people. The in-depth analysis of the media representation of the victims of terrorist attacks highlighted the fact that the journalistic ethical codes might have the power to strengthen the protection of the people in the press, while assessing the noninfringement or the breach of the supranational and national legislation enacted by the European Union and France. Keywords: victims, terrorist attacks, media ethics, media law "

The practice of the media in the light of the media legislation in Sudan

The article sheds light on the results of a study of the practice and content of legislative regulation of the media in the Republic of Sudan. Its goal is to identify and describe the main characteristics of the model of relations between the state and the media, to determine the level of freedom of journalists of Sudan, the prospects for the development of self-censorship of the Sudanese media sphere. The research method is descriptive and its tools, are content analysis of specific laws, acts and regulations in force for the period of the study and standard interviews with Sudanese media practitioners to allow the author to determine the concept of interaction and mutual influence of the legislative framework on the state of the media sphere of the Republic of Sudan. As a result of the study, the author concludes that the laws of the Sudanese media do not contain any of the concepts of «freedom of expression», «freedom of access to information». In the media prac- tice of Sudan, there is no such institution as the Ombudsman, an official responsible for communicating with the audience and media professionals in respect of human rights, principles of justice, settlement of complaints. The respondents of the interviews-journalists identified the low level of freedom of the media in Sudan and demonstrated a high level of self-censorship. The author also formulated fundamental recommendations for improving media legislation, which should take into account the new political realities and changes that have occurred in the country in 2018-2019. The study of the general practice of legislative regulation of the Republic of Sudan, presented by the author, is also of practical importance, based on which it is proposed to use a system for amend- ing the current legislation, the adoption of new laws guaranteeing real freedom of the media, the realization of the fundamental human right to freely receive and disseminate information. According to the author, the creation of favorable conditions for the unhindered expression of opinions and the receipt of relevant information is a necessary condition for the development of the socio-political sphere of Sudan. Key words: media legislation, freedom of speech, Sudan, self-censorship, human rights.

New constitution and media freedom in Libya: journalists’ perspectives

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate Libyan journalists’ perspectives regarding the media laws Articles 37,132, 38 and 46, which address media freedom in the new Libyan Constitution of 2017. Design/methodology/approach Focus group discussions were done with 35 Libyan journalists, 12 of them from the Constitution Committee, while 23 of them reported the update of the constitution in the Libyan Parliament. Findings The results of the study indicated that there were media laws articles that did not conform to the international laws and United Nations treaties, which the Libyan Parliament committee approved. Another finding from the journalists was the Constitution should provide and guarantee press freedom, while media laws articles approved to put a paragraph about “censorship” in the press and media as a tool to silence government opposition. In addition, journalists indicated future constitution should redraft Article 38 to conform with Article 19 of the “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,” to support the “principles of freedom of expression and information” without control. Moreover, Article 46 needs to be changed and linked to the “provisions of international law on the right of information access” to improve the access and dissemination of information in the media. Practical implications Redrafting the constitution articles in the future can be summarised as follows: First, the Libyan Constitution should provide and guarantee press freedom without any censorship and include clear articles to protect journalists in conflict zones. Second, Articles 37,132 and 38, about “freedom of information and publication,” need to be redrafted to link with Article 19 of the “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,” to support the principles of freedom of expression and information, and the use of this right must not be subject to prior control. Third, Article 46 needs to be changed and linked to the provisions of “International law on the Right of Access to Information” to improve access and dissemination of information in the media to protect confidentiality sources. The most important articles should be implemented (freedom of information and personal information act) because after the Arab Spring revolutions, there was a transitional period in societies and a change in the constitutions of Tunisia and Egypt. They developed legal articles about media freedom so that Libya resembles other Arab countries. From that point, the journalists recommended that all information should be protected from government interference to ensure transparency, combat corruption and protect independent journalists. These articles will open the way to add more development articles to media freedom rules in the Journalists’ Syndicate. Fourth, there are also various types of threats encountered by journalists in their work. In pursuit of their right and freedom of expression, they recommended that Libya must establish an independent self-regulatory media that are free from political and economic influence. Fifth, journalists need licenses for them to work through the syndicate. The new syndicate should play an active role to safeguard the rights of journalists, activists and media entities to carry out their work and end the self-censorship. Sixth, the constitution should also add articles to end the impunity and change the articles in the penal code. Overall, the journalists covering the conflict and war are encountering threats, violence and imprisonment. As a result, Libyan journalists must seek new legislation to defend independent journalism and freedom of expression in their deeply divided country. In addition, they need to have a strong central authority to defend journalists and journalism in wartime, where journalists are regularly threatened, abducted and sometimes killed. Also, the Libyan Journalists Syndicate should stress the importance of the media’s self-regulation to guarantee their rights to freedom of expression, grant their readers’ respect and minimise government’s interference. Finally, they need to develop new laws to grant media freedom from regulations and restrictions, as well as defend and promote democracy, the citizens’ right to be informed, as well as their right to discuss and disseminate information. There is also the need to implement articles in the constitution, articles about the protection of political speech, which would be specific enough to differentiate between what is legally permitted and what may be ethically offensive. Originality/value This study will help the new Libyan parliament after the legislative elections on 24 December 2021 to amend the media laws articles in the constitution.

Freedom of Expression and the Construing of Defamation Under the Ethiopian Civil and Criminal Law

Defamation is defined as the act of communication of a false statement that harms the reputation of a person, business, product, group, government, religion, or nation [1] . To constitute a defamation, an act must generally be intentional whether it is truth or false statement and must have been made to someone other than the person defamed. Some common law jurisdictions also distinguish between spoken defamation, called slander, and defamation in other media such as printed words or images, called libel [2] . Under this work defamation is seen from its liability aspects against the free use of freedom of expression. The laws in relation to freedom of expression such as the ICCPR, ICESCR, UDHR, and the municipal laws such as: the FDRE Constitution, the Press and Media laws, the Criminal and Civil laws of the country that expressly or tacitly dealing with freedom of expression and the consequence of defamation. DOI: 10.7176/JLPG/109-01 Publication date: May 31 st 2021 [1] LeRoy Miller, Roger (2011). Business Law Today: The Essentials. United States: South-Western Cengage Learning. p. 127. ISBN 1-133-19135-5 . [2] Linda L. Edwards, J. Stanley Edwards, Patricia Kirtley Wells, Tort Law for Legal Assistants, Cengage Learning, 2008, p. 390.