Law Enforcement Personnel Research Articles

“It Made Me Feel Like Someone Wasn’t Doing Their Job:” Sexual Assault Kit (SAK) Victim Notifications and Institutional Betrayal by the Criminal Legal System

ABSTRACT In the United States, sexual assault survivors are advised to have a medical forensic exam and the collection of a sexual assault kit (SAK) to preserve biological evidence (e.g. semen, blood, saliva, hair) if they are considering reporting the assault to the police. Law enforcement personnel are supposed to submit the SAK (also known as a “rape kit”) to a crime laboratory for forensic DNA testing, which can help identify or confirm the identity of the offender. However, police do not routinely submit SAKs for testing, and large stockpiles of untested kits have been found in police storage throughout the United States. Public outrage has prompted many cities to submit these older rape kits for DNA analysis, and this testing has identified thousands of suspected perpetrators. Police and prosecutors are re-opening these older sexual assault cases, which requires reestablishing contact with survivors who made the initial report years ago – a process referred to as “victim notification.” In this study, we conducted qualitative interviews with survivors who received a SAK victim notification and participated in the re-investigation and prosecution of their cases. We explored how survivors reacted to this de facto admission of an institutional betrayal and the emotions they felt during and after the notification. Participants experienced considerable emotional distress (e.g. PTSD, anxiety, fear), anger and betrayal, and hope after they were recontacted by the police. Implications for making victim notifications more trauma informed are discussed.

Canadian policing wellness check conference 2023

Across the globe, leaders in policing are increasingly recognizing the urgency and significance of addressing the health and wellness of law enforcement personnel as concerning trends related to the mental health of officers continue to grow. Emerging from three years of some of the most challenging circumstances that Canadian policing has faced, and over five years since the last national check-in, the Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police (CACP) designed the 2023 Canadian Policing Wellness Check Conference to bring about a renewed sense of focus to the wellness of the policing community. Organized by the CACP and moderated by esteemed advisor and educator Norm Taylor, the conference brought together 176 delegates, speakers, sponsors, and leaders from the international and national policing and mental health communities for an inspiring, fast-paced two-day conference at the Fairmont Château Laurier in Ottawa, Ontario, on March 7 and 8, 2023. The following paper provides a comprehensive report on the proceedings.

Misrecognitions of Victimhood: Discretionary Power of Street-level Bureaucrats in Humanitarian Visas

Humanitarian visas provide one of few potential pathways to citizenship for foreign nationals victimized within the United States and are an important aspect of immigration law. Yet one form of humanitarian visas—T nonimmigrant status (T visa)—has received scant attention in the socio-legal studies literature. “T visas” were designed to aid survivors of human trafficking and, though the US government estimates that tens of thousands of individuals are trafficked in the United States every year, only 15 percent of the five thousand T visas available annually have been granted since the program’s inception in 2002. Why are T visas such an underutilized form of immigration relief? Drawing on twenty in-depth interviews with immigration lawyers, law enforcement personnel, and non-governmental organization service providers routinely involved in T visa applications, we find that the low rate of applications and approvals is driven by a combination of structural barriers and expansive discretion of key actors in the legal process to interpret and apply the law, which results in a narrow and often misinformed construction of victimhood. We add to the literature on the discretionary power of street-level bureaucrats to shape the law and determine how it is applied with considerable consequences for survivors of trafficking.

Working to Improve Youth-Police Interactions: A Pilot Evaluation of a Program for Young People.

In addition to training law enforcement personnel in strategies to promote positive youth-police interactions, equipping youth with similar knowledge is critical in ensuring safe and effective youth-police encounters. The classroom-based Juvenile Justice Curriculum was designed to equip young people with knowledge about the law and their rights and to empower them to have safer interactions with police. In the current study, we conducted the first evaluation of Strategies for Youth's nationally recognized classroom-based intervention. Cross-sectional data were collected from 155 youth (M age = 15.3; 43% White, 23% Black; 61% boys) after they completed the Juvenile Justice Curriculum. Results from our study indicated young people learned new information regarding what leads to arrest and multiple ways they might consider changing their behaviors when interacting with police. Young people's negative experiences with police officers were significantly associated with reduced views that police respect them and reports that they respect police, and with increased views of police as ethnoracially biased after completing the program. Altogether, our pilot program evaluation of this program demonstrated increased awareness of what constitutes illegal behavior, program engagement, and learned strategies to improve future interactions with police. Findings highlight the importance of policy makers supporting programming like the Juvenile Justice Curriculum as one means of preventing juvenile legal system involvement. While the onus to ensure safe and effective interactions with police should not be on young people, empowering young people to understand the law and their rights may help improve the social climate surrounding community responses to police and police interactions.

Assessment of eight insulin resistance surrogate indexes for predicting metabolic syndrome and hypertension in Thai law enforcement officers.

Police officers in Thailand have an increased risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes, possibly due to a high prevalence of hypertension and metabolic syndrome (MetS). In this study, the researchers aimed to understand the relationship between surrogate markers of insulin resistance (IR) and the prevalence of MetS and hypertension in Thai police officers. The study included 7,852 police officer participants, of which 91.8% were men with an average age of 48.56 years. The prevalence of hypertension and MetS were found to be 51.1% and 30.8%, respectively, and the participants with MetS and hypertension were older compared to the regular group. The study looked at eight IR indices, including markers such as atherogenic index of plasma (AIP), lipid accumulation product (LAP), metabolic score for insulin resistance (METS-IR), triglyceride glucose (TyG) index, TyG index with body mass index (TyG-BMI), TyG index with waist circumference (TyG-WC), the ratio of triglycerides to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio (TG/HDL-c), and visceral obesity index (VAI). These indices were found to be positively correlated with waist circumference, systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), fasting plasma glucose (FPG), and triglycerides (TG), while being negatively correlated with high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-c). In addition, the multiple regression analysis showed that higher quartiles of all IR indices were significantly associated with increased risks of MetS and hypertension. Interestingly, the IR indices were more accurate in predicting MetS (ranges 0.848 to 0.892) than traditional obesity indices, with the AUC difference at p < 0.001. Among the IR indices, TyG-WC performed the best in predicting MetS (AUC value 0.892 and Youden index 0.620). At the same time, TyG-BMI had the highest accuracy in predicting hypertension (AUC value of 0.659 and Youden index of 0.236). In addition, this study found that when two markers were combined for diagnosing metabolic syndrome, a significantly improved predictive value for disease risk was observed, as evidenced by higher AUC and Yoden index. Moreover, the IR indices were found to have higher predictive power for MetS and hypertension in younger police personnel (age < 48 years) than older personnel. In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of reducing cardiovascular disease risks among law enforcement personnel as a strategic goal to improve their health and wellness. The findings suggest that IR indices may be valuable tools in predicting MetS and hypertension in law enforcement personnel and could potentially aid in the early identification and prevention of law enforcement personnel health conditions.

J. Schafer and J. Navarro (2023): Advanced Interviewing Techniques: Proven Strategies for Law Enforcement, Military, and Security Personnel (4th ed.); Book Review

J. Schafer and J. Navarro (2023): Advanced Interviewing Techniques: Proven Strategies for Law Enforcement, Military, and Security Personnel (4th ed.); Book Review

Suite of Aptamer-Based Sensors for the Detection of Fentanyl and Its Analogues.

Fentanyl and its analogues are potent synthetic opioids that are commonly abused and are currently the number one cause of drug overdose death in the United States. The ability to detect fentanyl with simple, rapid, and low-cost tools is crucial for forensics, medical care, and public safety. Conventional on-site testing options for fentanyl detection─including chemical spot tests, lateral-flow immunoassays, and portable Raman spectrometers─each have their own unique flaws that limit their analytical utility. Here, we have developed a series of new aptamer-based assays and sensors that can detect fentanyl as well as several of its analogues in a reliable, accurate, rapid, and economic manner. These include colorimetric, fluorescent, and electrochemical sensors, which can detect and quantify minute quantities of fentanyl and many of its analogues with no response to other illicit drugs, cutting agents, or adulterants─even in interferent-ridden binary mixtures containing as little as 1% fentanyl. Given the high performance of these novel analytical tools, we foresee the potential for routine use by medical and law enforcement personnel as well as the general public to aid in rapid and accurate fentanyl identification.

Using habitat suitability models for multiscale forensic geolocation analysis

AbstractPollen is one of the most durable environmental materials that law enforcement agencies recover as trace evidence from people and objects. Although links between objects and geographic locations are essential during legal investigations, the approach of using pollen and other microbial fingerprints to build these links in an analytical framework is still underutilized. This study uses bees as objects that are mobile and collects environmental traces as a test case to determine the efficacy of predictive geolocation efforts with recovered pollen and species distribution models at both subcontinental and global scales. Results demonstrate promising performance in both the predictive capability of species distribution models and identification of possible location history of bees at both study extents. When coupling pollen with other categories of evidentiary items, this geographic attribution framework can aid law enforcement personnel in refining investigation priorities and optimizing search strategies.

Design and Development of a Low-Cost 2.4 GHz GFSK Modulation based Walkie-Talkie

A walkie-talkie device can be quite useful in the location where there is no cellphone coverage. Even in the cellphone coverage area it provides communication at very low cost. Currently the law enforcement and military personnel uses frequency modulation (FM) based walkie-talkie systems. The main goal of this research is to design and develop a lowcost walkie-talkie device that can be used by anyone other than the military and law enforcement personals. To construct the walkie-talkie system, the 2.4 GHz industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band and GFSK modulation technology have been chosen. In addition, the device includes transceiver module, dc power source, microphone amplifier, audio amplifier, dc-dc booster, and speaker. The coverage range of the implemented walkie-talkie system has been determined and found up to 200 meters. The gadget incorporates a li-ion battery charging system. The voltage, current and power levels at various locations of the device have been measured. It has been found that the maximum operating power consumption is 4.81W and standby power is 1mW. Moreover, the waveforms of different signals at different points of the systems have been observed on the oscilloscope. All of the development process of the system and the performance data are presented in this paper. DUJASE Vol. 7 (2) 16-20, 2022 (July)

Physiological Effects of a Spit Restraint Device Saturated With Artificial Saliva

BackgroundSpit restraint devices, also referred to as spit hoods, spit masks, or spit socks, are used by law enforcement and medical personnel to minimize transmission of communicable disease from bodily fluids from agitated individuals. Several lawsuits have implicated spit restraint devices as contributing to the death of individuals who are physically restrained by means of asphyxiation due to saturation of the mesh restraint device with saliva. ObjectivesThis study aims to evaluate whether a saturated spit restraint device has any clinically significant effects on the ventilatory or circulatory parameters of healthy adult subjects. MethodsSubjects wore a spit restraint device dampened with 0.5% carboxymethylcellulose, an artificial saliva. Baseline vitals were taken, and a wet spit restraint device was then placed over the subject's head, and repeat measurements were taken at 10, 20, 30, and 45 min. A second spit restraint device was placed 15 min after the first. Measurements at 10, 20, 30, and 45 min were compared with baseline using paired t-tests. ResultsThe mean age of 10 subjects was 33.8 years, and 50% were female. There was no significant difference between baseline and while wearing the spit sock for 10, 20, 30, and 45 min for the measured parameters including heart rate, oxygen saturation, end-tidal CO2, respiratory rate, or blood pressure. No subject indicated respiratory distress or had to terminate the study. ConclusionsIn healthy adult subjects, there were no statistically or clinically significant differences in ventilatory or circulatory parameters while wearing the saturated spit restraint.

FOREWORDS BY EDITOR

FOREWORDS BY EDITOR

Pre‐export shark fin processing to conceal CITES‐listed species: a case‐study from a shark fin seizure in Colombia

AbstractIllegal trade in shark fins can be a driver of overexploitation and is a global law enforcement issue given that some frequently traded species are listed on CITES Appendix II. Shark fins are usually traded dried or frozen and are not processed until they reach supply chain end points in southeast Asia, which allows for visual species identification in many of the commonly traded species. All external tissue is removed during processing, eliminating characters that are crucial for visual species identification. If processing occurs early in the supply chain, law enforcement personnel face the challenge of identifying fins to the species level and detecting illegal trade without the ability to do so visually. Here, we apply mini‐barcoding and real‐time PCR methods to a case study in Colombia where seized processed shark fins were sampled and analyzed using these methods. Five species of shark were identified, all of which are listed under CITES Appendix II, and four of which have been assessed to be in threatened categories by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Threatened and CITES‐listed species comprised 96.3% and 100% of the analyzed samples, respectively. The case study presented here raises concerns about the changes occurring when processing takes place in the supply chain, impeding any kind of identification of illegally traded shark fins without genetic tools. If early‐supply chain processing becomes the norm, it will introduce significant identification challenges for law enforcement throughout the rest of the supply chain. This underscores the need for in‐port genetic testing capacity building in nations and regions where shark products are highly traded to detect CITES‐listed and prohibited/regulated species at any point of the supply chain and regardless of the nature of the product.

Verbal Indicators of Deception

Suspects involved in criminal investigations will withhold information from law enforcement personnel to avoid potential legal consequences. Discovering where suspects utilize this form of deception during interviews can help investigators identify specific portions of their narratives where follow-up inquiries should be made, providing an opportunity to gain critical information that would not otherwise be revealed. To gain this vital information, it is necessary to develop a noninvasive technique that law enforcement investigators can deploy in the field to detect deception in verbal communication as quickly and accurately as possible. This paper presents one such technique-grammatical structural analysis (GSA)-and discusses its viability in detecting deception, its limitations, and potential avenues for future research in determining the veracity of suspects statements by examining the structure and patterns in their verbal behavior

“It’s just another tool on my toolbelt”: New York state law enforcement officer experiences administering naloxone

BackgroundAlthough naloxone is widely acknowledged as a life-saving intervention and a critical tool for first responders, there remains a need to explore how law enforcement officers have adapted to a shifting scope of work. Past research has focused mainly on officer training, their abilities to administer naloxone, and to a lesser extent on their experiences and interactions working with people who use drugs (PWUD).MethodsA qualitative approach was used to explore officer perspectives and behaviors surrounding responses to incidents of suspected opioid overdose. Between the months of March and September 2017, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 38 officers from 17 counties across New York state (NYS).ResultsAnalysis of in-depth interviews revealed that officers generally considered the additional responsibility of administering naloxone to have become “part of the job”. Many officers reported feeling as though they are expected to wear multiple hats, functioning as both law enforcement and medical personnel and at times juggling contradictory roles. Evolving views on drugs and drug use defined many interviews, as well as the recognition that a punitive approach to working with PWUD is not the solution, emphasizing the need for cohesive, community-wide support strategies. Notable differences in attitudes toward PWUD appeared to be influenced by an officer’s connection to someone who uses drugs and/or due to a background in emergency medical services.ConclusionLaw enforcement officers in NYS are emerging as an integral part of the continuum of care for PWUD. Our findings are capturing a time of transition as more traditional approaches to law enforcement appear to be shifting toward those prioritizing prevention and diversion. Widespread adoption of naloxone administration by law enforcement officers in NYS is a powerful example of the successful integration of a public health intervention into police work.

#TheTalk for Black Men: Understanding Survival Strategies for Black Masculinity in US Law Enforcement Interactions

ABSTRACT: Contemporarily and historically, American police have stigmatized, racially profiled, stereotyped, used excessive force, and often brutally killed Black men who were unarmed and not resisting. Beginning as “slave patrols,” policing has long targeted and dehumanized Black bodies. Using the Cress Theory of Color-Confrontation, this study answers (a) what do Black/African American males describe as their (taught) preparation for police interactions, and (b) how, if at all, do Black American males prepare themselves in moments leading up to (potential) law enforcement interactions? The current study revealed two key findings, “Exploring the Talk” and “Appearing Normal, Covering the Survival Checklist,” respectively. Investigating these phenomena provides Black individuals with how to best engage in such preparations for law enforcement and law enforcement personnel with insights into Black perspectives and an attempt to improve policing tactics in Black communities.

#TheTalk for Black Men: Understanding Survival Strategies for Black Masculinity in US Law Enforcement Interactions

ABSTRACT: Contemporarily and historically, American police have stigmatized, racially profiled, stereotyped, used excessive force, and often brutally killed Black men who were unarmed and not resisting. Beginning as “slave patrols,” policing has long targeted and dehumanized Black bodies. Using the Cress Theory of Color-Confrontation, this study answers (a) what do Black/African American males describe as their (taught) preparation for police interactions, and (b) how, if at all, do Black American males prepare themselves in moments leading up to (potential) law enforcement interactions? The current study revealed two key findings, “Exploring the Talk” and “Appearing Normal, Covering the Survival Checklist,” respectively. Investigating these phenomena provides Black individuals with how to best engage in such preparations for law enforcement and law enforcement personnel with insights into Black perspectives and an attempt to improve policing tactics in Black communities.

Mental health and wellness initiatives supporting United States law enforcement personnel: The current state-of-play

The current research provides a national snapshot of availability, access, and perceived effectiveness of wellness services and help-seeking stigma. This study is based on a sample of 3,994 police officers across the United States. The current study found a substantial percentage of officers are accessing wellness services, whether agency-provided, external, or a combination of both. Among officers who were most in need of wellness services, those experiencing some level of psychological distress, over 90% accessed at least one agency-provided or external service. Employee assistance program (EAP) services, formal and informal debriefings with managers and colleagues, chaplaincy services, and peer support were identified as some of the most common types of wellness programs provided by agencies and were also among the most effective wellness services as identified by officers who had accessed them. However, the research did highlight the need to consider gender, years of service, and agency size to provide a more nuanced view of psychological distress,support, and help-seeking stigma. Stigma associated with help-seeking remains a concern that must be addressed in police populations.

Barriers and Motivators to Seeking Mental Health Support: An Assessment of a Southeastern Sheriff's Office

Limited research has examined what factors serve as potential barriers and motivators for law enforcement personnel in seeking mental health support. The current study presents findings from a survey of 158 sworn and civilian personnel from a large Southeastern Sheriff's office to shed light on these potential barriers/motivators. We drew on previous literature to create measures related to mental health stigma, confidentiality, burnout, various stressors, and organizational support, among others. The main effects OLS regression models suggest that increased perceptions of stigma and personal stressors significantly lowered employees’ willingness to seek mental health support. However, increased burnout and job satisfaction were associated with employees seeking mental health support. Multiplicative models show that as job satisfaction increased within nonwhite respondents, those respondents were significantly more likely to seek mental health assistance. However, as personal stressors increased among nonwhite respondents, those respondents were significantly less likely to seek help. Finally, as overall health increased among white respondents, those respondents were significantly more likely to seek help. Findings indicate that mental health issues experienced by employees vary based on group membership. We discuss several future research directions and policy implications derived from these findings.

The effects of COVID-19 lockdown measures on health and healthcare services in Uganda.

Many countries across the world instituted lockdowns as a measure to prevent the spread of COVID-19. However, these lockdowns had consequences on health systems. This study explored effects of the COVID-19 lockdown measures on health and healthcare services in Uganda. The qualitative study employed focus group discussions (FGDs), household interviews, and key informant interviews (KIIs) in both an urban (Kampala district) and rural (Wakiso district) setting in central Uganda. Fourteen FGDs were conducted among community members, local leaders, community health workers, and health practitioners. Interviews were conducted among 40 households, while 31 KIIs were held among various stakeholders including policy makers, non-governmental organisations, and the private sector. Data was analysed by thematic analysis with the support of NVivo 2020 (QSR International). Findings from the study are presented under four themes: maternal and reproductive health; child health; chronic disease services; and mental health. Maternal and reproductive health services were negatively affected by the lockdown measures which resulted in reduced utilisation of antenatal, postnatal and family planning services. These effects were mainly due to travel restrictions including curfew, and fear of contracting COVID-19. The effects on child health included reduced utilisation of services which was a result of difficulties faced in accessing health facilities because of the travel restrictions. Patients with chronic conditions could not access health facilities for their routine visits particularly due to suspension of public transport. Depression, stress and anxiety were common due to social isolation from relatives and friends, loss of jobs, and fear of law enforcement personnel. There was also increased anxiety among health workers due to fear of contracting COVID-19. The COVID-19 lockdown measures negatively affected health, and reduced access to maternal, reproductive and child health services. Future interventions in pandemic response should ensure that their effects on health and access to health services are minimised.

"Do No Harm": Promoting Anti-Racist Policing in Pediatric Emergency Departments Through 20 Practice Change Considerations.

Children represent some of the most vulnerable and most valuable members of society. When acutely ill or injured, pediatric emergency departments (EDs) provide first line, specialized care for children and adolescents. Unique and unpredictable, the pediatric ED environment requires a wide range of health care professionals to care for children and their families and often includes hospital-employed security professionals and local law enforcement personnel to ensure safe and protective spaces paramount for optimal patient care. However, an active policing presence within environments designed to promote healing can paradoxically contribute to harm, particularly for Black and Brown patients. As health care systems pledge to dismantle structural racism and achieve health equity, efforts must include anti-racist reforms of threat management systems within clinical environments. We propose assessment and evaluation of current security and police encounters within pediatric EDs. We call for institution of policies that mitigate biases, address medical mistrust, distinguish clinical from criminal aggression, and minimize punitive contact with police. We outline a multitiered, patient-centered approach to disruptive and violent acts that prioritizes prevention, early intervention, and de-escalation strategies with a goal of reducing the perceived need for policing presence in pediatric EDs.