Lavender Plant Research Articles

Analysis of energy and exergy of lavender extract powder in spray dryer

AbstractIn recent years, the research in the field of medicinal plants as therapeutic supplements has increased significantly. Lavender extract is widely used among medicinal plant products due to its unique therapeutic properties. Since drying processes require high energy, this study was conducted to study the performance of the spray dryer in the production of lavender extract powder at three levels of air temperature 150°C, 180°C, and 210°C, three levels of compressed air flow rate 6, 8, and 10 L/min and ratios of maltodextrin‐drying aid to the mass of dry matter of the extract 0%, 25%, and 50% by response surface method. For this purpose, the energy efficiency and exergy of the powder production process were examined. According to the obtained results, increasing the inlet air temperature and the inlet air flow rate increased the energy efficiency and exergy and decreased the energy efficiency and exergy, respectively. The energy efficiency of the drying process varied in the range of 6.55%–15.87%, and the exergy efficiency () of the drying process in the range of 2.87%–5.84%. Also, the of the spray dryer was calculated in the range of 20.05%–38.78%. Based on the energy efficiency and exergy, the optimal production of lavender plant extract powder was obtained at the air temperature of 210°C, the compressed air flow rate of 6 L/min, and the amount of drying aid of 11.9 g/L.

Lavender Plant: Farming and Health Benefits.

Natural remedies from a range of sources, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and marine life, have made a significant contribution to the treatment of many ailments. Lavender is a Mediterranean shrub from the Lamiaceae family. Lavender flowers (Lavandula flores) include active ingredients (3%), anthocyanins, sugars, phytosterols, minerals, and tannins and are majorly used for herbal applications. Lavender essential oil's descriptive and analytical composition varies depending on genotype, growing region, climatic circumstances, propagation, and morphological characteristics. There are around 300 chemical components in essential oil. Linalool, terpinen-4-ol, linalyl acetate, ocimene, acetate lavandulol, and cineole are the most prominent constituents. Lavender oil has antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The lavender extract helps to prevent dementia and may slow cancer cell growth, while lavender oil is used to treat skin problems. This review will cover the recent medical, economic and regional advancements in levander propagation and how the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research Indian Institute of Integrative (CSIR IIIM) aroma mission is actively acting as a bridge between farmers and their economic improvement by attracting them to the field of medicinal plant cultivation.

Exogenous Application of Gamma Aminobutyric Acid Improves the Morpho-Physiological and Biochemical Attributes in Lavandula dentata L. under Salinity Stress

Saline water has been proposed as a solution to partially supply plants with their water requirements due to a lack of fresh water for cultivation in arid and semi-arid sites. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a non-protein amino acid participating in numerous metabolic processes to mitigate the undesirable effects of salinity. A pot experiment was carried out during 2021 and 2022 at Sakha Horticulture Research Station to investigate the effect of foliar application of GABA at 20 and 40 mM on vegetative growth and biochemical changes in French lavender under increasing levels of sea water salinity irrigation treatments (0, 1000, 2000, and 3000 ppm). Results indicated that increasing salinity concentration noticeably decreased plant height, number of branches, herb fresh and dry weight, root length, root fresh and dry weights, photosynthetic pigments, relative water content, and essential oil percentage. On the other hand, accumulation of proline and antioxidant enzymes was increased under increasing salinity concentrations. We conclude that foliar application of GABA acid at 40 mM can alleviate the adverse effects of salinity on the abovementioned French lavender plant characteristics by improving vegetative growth and root characteristics, as well as diminishing chlorophyll degradation, maintaining high leaf relative water content, increasing proline accumulation and antioxidant activity.

Lavender (Lavandula offitcenalis L) cultivation technology and medicinal properties

In this article, the cultivation technology, biology, importance in agriculture and agriculture, chemical composition and medicinal composition of the lavender plant are covered

Exogenous utilization of jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate stimulates growth and biochemical composition of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) plant

Exogenous utilization of jasmonic acid and methyl jasmonate stimulates growth and biochemical composition of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) plant

Benefit Information’s Impact on Ornamental Plant Value

Ornamental plants provide many benefits to humans, including those that affect emotional/mental health, physiological health, social interactions, and economic/financial conditions. However, research related to consumers’ perceived value of ornamental plants has focused primarily on production methods that were used to produce plants, while consumers’ perceived intrinsic value of postpurchase benefits has not been addressed. There is potential for benefit information to generate value for consumers. Knowing consumers’ value for different plant benefits serves to inform green industry stakeholders as they consider their marketing strategies and whether to include benefit information as a part of their plant promotions. An online survey was conducted to elicit U.S. consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) for lavender plants while displaying different plant benefit information. Participants randomly viewed one of eight plant benefit messages and indicated the maximum they were willing to pay for a lavender plant displaying that benefit. The benefits messages were categorized as cognitive, social, physical, emotional, environmental, aesthetic, educational, and economic based on prior literature. Tobit models were used to analyze the data. Compared to economic benefit information, the social benefit generated the largest premium (USD 6.75). Plant spending in 2020 and household income increased participants’ WTP for the lavender plants. Age had a negative impact on WTP.

Effect of Drying Conditions and Days on Essential oil Yield and Quality of Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia Mill.) Cultivars Grown in Wondo Genet, Ethiopia

Lavender belongs to the genus Lavandula and the family Lamiaceae. Among the factor affecting the quality of lavender plant chemotype, are harvesting and storage conditions. No further study has been done on drying conditions and time in Ethiopia so far. The fresh leaf of the Lavender cultivar was subjected to sun and shade drying conditions and four drying days (0,5, 10, and 15). From each sample, the essential oil was extracted. The extracted essential oil was subjected to physical parameters analysis: - essential oil content (volume by weight and weight by weight), specific gravity, and refractive index. Local lavender shows a higher essential oil content and moisture content than the flowering lavender cultivar. All physical properties of essential oils except specific gravity, show significant differences in all cases between cultivar, drying conditions, drying days, and interaction effect of all cases. This shows drying conditions and drying days affect the quality of lavender essential oils. Therefore, this study provides evidence (information) that drying herbs on different drying days and drying conditions affects the essential oil content and physical properties of essential oil.

The Effect of Brassinolide and the Organic Fertilizer (Grow-More) on the Vegetative Growth and the Active Substances of the Lavender Plant L.

Using a wooden canopy from the Department of Horticulture and Garden Engineering at the College of Agriculture/University of Tikrit, researchers examined the 2020/2021 lavender crop. To see if the growth regulator brassinolide and the nutrient solution Grow-more can improve the vegetative features and active substance of the lavender plant Lavandula angustifolia Mill. Three replications were used for the experiment, which used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to investigate two parameters. There are two components: BL, a brassinolide growth regulator (concentrations of 0,000, 0,005, 0,001 mg L-1), and GM nutrients (concentrations of 4, 120 mg L-1). (240 mg. L-1)

A Mini-Review of the Medicinal Properties of the Lavender Plant and Ways to Increase Its Effective Compounds

A Mini-Review of the Medicinal Properties of the Lavender Plant and Ways to Increase Its Effective Compounds

Production of Lavender (Lavandula Angustifolia) Plants from Somatic Embryos Developed from its Seedlings Leaf Callus

The current study succeeded in producing the lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) plant from somatic embryos induced by the leaves callus of its seedlings, The results of soaking its dormant seeds in a solution of gibberellic acid at concentrations (0, 0.1, 0.25, 0.5, 1.0) gm l -1 for 24 hours showed the superiority of the concentration 0.5 g L -1 in stimulation the germination rate that reached 75% after 6 days comparing with other treatments and control that had 20% germination after 13 days. This study was able to initiated callus from seedling leaves when were placed on MS solid medium supplemented with by added 3.0 mg L-1 NAA and 10 mg L -1 BA after 20 days, Initiated callus was characterized by its yellowish-green color and friable texture, and when its masses were removed and placed on the same media, it produced well-growth cultures that were perpetuated every 15 days. After the second sub-culturing, the first stages of somatic embryos appeared, the spherical stage, which later developed into the heart,then torpedo and cotyledon stages and produced when placed individually on MSO medium, Intact lavender plants after 30 days were characterized by their good growth and density of leaves.

The LC-MS/MS Identification and Analgesic and Wound Healing Activities of Lavandula officinalis Chaix: In Vivo and In Silico Approaches

We earlier emphasized in vivo the lavender plant's (Lavandula officinalis Chaix.) anti-inflammatory and estrogenic activities and described the chemical compositions of its hydro-ethanolic (HE) extract. We used LC-MS/MS and GC-MS analyses to profile the phytochemical composition of the HE extract and to assess the analgesic and wound-healing effects of both the hydro-ethanolic (HE) and polyphenolic (LOP) extracts in vivo and in silico. The analgesic activity was studied using two methods: acetic acid and formalin injections in mice. The wound-healing activity was carried out over 25 days using a burn model in rats. In the in silico study, the polyphenols identified in the plant were docked in the active sites of three enzymes: casein kinase-1, cyclooxygenase-2, and glycogen synthase kinase-3β. The LC-MS/MS identified some phenolic compounds, mainly apigenin, catechin, and myricetin, and the GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of 19 volatile compounds with triazole, D-glucose, hydroxyphenyl, and D-Ribofuranose as the major compounds. The HE and LOP extracts showed significant decreases in abdominal writhes, and the higher licking time of the paw (57.67%) was observed using the LOP extract at 200 mg/kg. Moreover, both extracts showed high healing percentages, i.e., 99.31 and 92.88%, compared to the control groups, respectively. The molecular docking showed that myricetin, amentoflavone, apigenin, and catechin are the most active molecules against the three enzyme receptors. This study sheds light on the potential of L. officinalis Chaix as a source of natural products for pharmaceutical applications for analgesic purposes as well as their utility in promoting burn-healing activity.

Study of the efficiency of the volatile oils of Lavandula angustifolia and Salvia officinalis plants in controlling the human head lice parasite Pediculus humanus capitis

The study aimed to know the effectiveness of the volatile oils of lavender and sagebrush plants in combating head lice in humans. It was clear through laboratory experiments that the two plants had a positive effect in killing adults from the parasite, especially when the treatment was done with the dishes covered to ensure the saturation of the ocean with steam. The killing rates were 100% during the first ten minutes when Treatment with a concentration of 15ppm for lavender plant and the first 15 minutes for sage plant at the same concentration. While a decrease in the effectiveness of volatile oils was observed when the lids were removed from the petri dishes during the treatment with the superiority of the volatile oil of sagebrush over the volatile oil extract of lavender, the duration did not exceed (4) hours in eliminating all parasites at concentrations (10,15ppm of sagebrush), while it increased The time required to kill all parasites is four hours in the case of treatment with the volatile oil extract of lavender plant and in the same concentrations as that of sage.

Lavender Essential oil Compounds as Antagonists of NMDA Receptor Subunit NR2B: A Molecular Modeling and Experimental Study

Background and Objectives Herbal plants are an important source of novel chemical drugs with therapeutic effects. The present study aims to find the chemical compounds of the essential oil of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller) and assess their antagonistic effects on N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunit NR2B in the brain. Subjects and Methods The essential oil was first isolated by distillation method from flowering inflorescences of lavender. Then, their chemical compounds were identifies by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Molecular docking study and the evaluation of the molecular structures were carried out on 20 compounds. Pyrx software, version 4.0 in Autodock Vina was used to perform the molecular docking of 20 ligands with NMDAR. The molecular structures of compounds were evaluated in SwissADME website. Results In GC-MS, 41 active compounds were detected comprising 95.5% of the total essential oil of lavender plant. The highest amount was related to trans-carveol, followed by isopulegol, 1,3,8, -p-menthatriene, and isoborneol. In docking studies, results showed that the best ligands for binding to NMDAR included trans-carveol, isopulegol, and 1,3,8, -p-menthatriene which demonstrated the higher affinity to active site of the NMDAR. Ifenprodil, as an antagonist, shared common binding sites with camphor, thymol, alpha-phellandrene, limonene, gamma-3-carene, beta-thujone, trans-Carveol, beta-caryophyllene. Camphor, thymol, beta-thujone and trans-carveol had the highest gastrointestinal absorption, and transcarveol had the lowest binding energy to NMDAR. Conclusion Camphor, thymol, beta-thujone, and trans-carveol are potential compounds of lavender essential oil to inhibit NMDAR and improve learning and memory in neurodegenerative diseases.

Tolerance limits of lavender plant (Lavandula angustifolia Mill) tissue cultures in response to abiotic stress

Tolerance limits of lavender plant (Lavandula angustifolia Mill) tissue cultures in response to abiotic stress

Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Plant Extracts Films: Preparation, Surface Characterization and Antibacterial Studies against Gram Positive and Gram Negative Bacteria.

In this study, we aim to obtain biomaterials with antibacterial properties by combining poly(vinyl alcohol) with the extracts obtained from various selected plants from Romania. Natural herbal extracts of freshly picked flowers of the lavender plant (Lavandula angustifolia) and leaves of the peppermint plant (Mentha piperita), hemp plant (Cannabis sativa L.), verbena plant (Verbena officinalis) and sage plant (Salvia officinalis folium) were selected after an intensive analyzing of diverse medicinal plants often used as antibacterial and healing agents from the country flora. The plant extracts were characterized by different methods such as totals of phenols and flavonoids content and UV-is spectroscopy. The highest amounts of the total phenolic and flavonoid contents, respectively, were recorded for Salvia officinalis. Moreover, the obtained films of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) loaded with plant extracts were studied concerning the surface properties and their antibacterial or cytotoxicity activity. The Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared analysis described the successfully incorporation of each plant extract in the poly(vinyl alcohol) matrix, while the profilometry demonstrated the enhanced surface properties. The results showed that the plant extracts conferred significant antibacterial effects to films toward Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli and are not toxic against fibroblastic cells from the rabbit.

Green synthesis, characterization and anti-cancer capability of Co0.5Ni0.5Nd0.02Fe1.98O4 nanocomposites

In this study, Co0.5Ni0.5Nd0.02Fe1.98O4 nanoparticles CoNiNd (NPs) were synthesized by combustion method linked with biosynthesis with and without different plant extracts such as Lavender, Ginger, Flax-Seed, Lemon Juice, Tragacanth Gum, and Dates Fruit. Co0.5Ni0.5Nd0.02Fe1.98O4 nanoparticles (NPs) with plant extracts (CoNiNd plant extracts) were analyzed by XRD, TEM and SEM methods. The structure of Co-Ni spinel ferrite was confirmed by XRD and the shape and the size of nanoparticles were examined via SEM and TEM and the size was found between 17 and 25 nm. The anti-cancer activity of NPs on cancer cells such as human colorectal carcinoma (HCT-116) and human cervical cells (Hela) were investigated. The cytotoxicity of was examined by MTT assay and followed by measuring the inhibitory concentration (IC50) values after 48 h treatments. The cell viability assay confirmed a decrease in the cancer cell viability post NPs treatments and showed dose-dependent inhibitory action. The treatments of CoNiNd (NPs) and CoNiNd plant extracts via Lavender plant extract showed most profound inhibitory action on both cancer cells than extracts other plant extracts. The IC50 values were for HCT-116 cells were found to be in range of 15.75–42.55 µg/mL and 13.44 to 35.65 µg/mL for HeLa cells. In contrast, the treatment of CoNiNd (NPs) and CoNiNd plant extracts showed inhibitory action but the percentage of inhibition was higher in HEK-293 cells. Our results showed that CoNiNd (NPs) and CoNiNd plant extracts possess potential application in the colon and cervical cancer treatments and we recommend molecular analysis of NPs mediated cancer cell death for future applications.

First report of Meloidogyne javanica pathogenic on hybrid lavender (Lavandula ×intermedia) in the United States.

Root-knot nematodes (RKNs), Meloidogyne spp., are some of the most economically important pathogens of cultivated plants. Meloidogyne javanica is one of the most destructive RKN species and is well known for its broad host range and the severe damage it causes to plant roots (Perry et al. 2009). In Feb 2018, four mature dead and dying hybrid lavender plants (Lavandula ×intermedia 'Phenomenal') were collected in Edgefield County, South Carolina, and suspected of having Phytophthora root and crown rot (Dlugos and Jeffers 2018). Greenhouse-grown plants had been transplanted in Dec 2016 and Jan 2017 into a sandy loam soil on a site that had been fallow or in pasture for over 30 years. Some plants began to turn gray and die in summer 2017, and approximately 40% of 1230 plants were symptomatic or dead by Feb 2018. Phytophthora spp. were not isolated from the collected plants but were isolated from plants collected on subsequent visits. Instead, all four plants had small, smooth galls on the roots. Lavender roots were examined microscopically (30-70×), and egg masses of RKNs were observed on the galls. Mature, sedentary RKN females were handpicked from galled roots, and perineal patterns of 10 specimens were examined and identified as M. javanica. Juveniles and eggs were extracted from lavender roots by the method of Coolen and D'herde (1972). To confirm species identification, DNA was extracted from 10 individual juveniles, and a PCR assay was conducted using species-specific primers for M. javanica, Fjav/Rjav (Zijlstra et al. 2000). A single amplicon was produced with the expected size of approximately 720 bp, which confirmed identity as M. javanica. To determine pathogenicity, M. javanica from lavender roots were inoculated onto susceptible tomato plants for multiplication, and severe gall symptoms occurred on tomato roots 60 days later. Nematodes were extracted from tomato roots and inoculated onto healthy, rooted cuttings of 'Phenomenal' lavender plants growing in pots of soilless medium in a greenhouse. Plants were inoculated with 0, 1000, 2000, 5000, or 10000 eggs and juveniles of M. javanica. Five single-plant replicates were used for each treatment, and plants were randomized on a greenhouse bench. Plants were assessed 60 days after inoculation, and nematodes were extracted from roots and counted. The reproduction factor was 0, 43.8, 40.9, 9.1, 7.7, and 2.6 for initial nematode populations 0, 1000, 2000, 5000, and 10000, respectively, which confirmed pathogenicity (Hussey and Janssen 2002). Meloidogyne javanica also was recovered in Mar 2018 from galled roots on a 'Munstead' (L. angustifolia) lavender plant from Kentucky (provided by the Univ. of Kentucky Plant Disease Diagnostic Laboratories), and an unidentified species of Meloidogyne was isolated in Aug 2020 from a 'Phenomenal' plant grown in Florida. COI mtDNA sequences from the SC (MZ542457) and KY (MZ542458) populations were submitted to Genbank. M. javanica previously was found associated with field-grown lavender (hybrid and L. angustifolia) in Brazil, but pathogenicity was not studied (Pauletti and Echeverrigaray 2002). To our knowledge, this is the first report of M. javanica pathogenic to L. ×intermedia in the USA, and the first time RKNs have been proven to be pathogenic to Lavandula spp. following Koch's Postulates. Further studies are needed to investigate the geographic distribution of M. javanica on lavender and the potential threat this nematode poses to lavender production in the USA.

Anti-inflammatory effect of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) essential oil prepared during different plant phenophases on THP-1 macrophages

BackgroundPseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common Gram-negative bacterium associated with nosocomial respiratory infections. Lavender essential oil is mainly used in aromatherapy, but it has several pharmacological and therapeutic properties. Furthermore, it possesses antifungal and antibacterial activities. The anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils may depend on the composition and the ratio of the compounds. The constitution of the essential oils extracted from the different stages of flowering period varies, which makes it plausible that the collection time of the flowers influences the anti-inflammatory effects. Different types of essential oils reduce inflammation acting similarly by modulating the activity and action of the NFκB signalling pathway, which is the major regulator of the transcription of pro-inflammatory cytokines.MethodsLavender essential oils were distilled from lavender plant cultivated in Hungary and the flowers were harvested at the beginning and at the end of flowering period. The experiments were carried out on THP-1 human monocyte/macrophage cell line as in vitro cell culture model for monitoring the effects of lavender essential oils and the main compound linalool on P. aeruginosa LPS stimulated inflammation. The mRNA and protein levels of four pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-1β, IL-8 and TNFα were determined by Real Time PCR and ELISA measurements. The effects of essential oils were compared to the response to two NFκB inhibitors, luteolin and ACHP.ResultsLinalool and lavender essential oil extracted from plants at the beginning of flowering period were successful in decreasing pro-inflammatory cytokine production following LPS pretreatment. In case of IL-8 and IL-1β lavender oil showed stronger effect compared to linalool and both of them acted similarly to NFκB inhibitors. Pretreatments with linalool and lavender essential oil/beginning of flowering period prevented pro-inflammatory cytokine production compared to LPS treatment alone. Although lavender essential oil/end of flowering period decreased IL-6, IL-1β and IL-8 mRNA expression in case of LPS pretreatment, it was not capable to reduce cytokine secretion.ConclusionBased on our results it has been proven that lavender essential oil extracted at the beginning of flowering period is a potent inhibitor of the synthesis of four pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, IL-β and TNFα of THP-1 cells. This supports the relevance of the collection of the lavender flowers from early blooming period for essential oil production and for the utilization as an anti-inflammatory treatment.

Analysis Results of Yarrow Medicinal Plant Used as Gastroprotective and Its Use in Health

Introduction: Herbal treatments are a sub-branch of traditional and complementary medicine. People generally use it to strengthen health. It is mostly used with the advice of radio-television, internet and friends. Among the side effects, the most frequent allergic reactions can be seen. tandardized products should be used.It is reported that 80% of the essential oils of mercury (Achillea herba L.) must be monoterpene. Sesquiterpene group is guaianolite, germacranolite, edesmanolite and has anti-inflammatory, anti-edematous, antimicrobial effect. As flavonoid routine, it contains apigenin. Quinine has effects that increase secretion and appetite. It is spasmolytic due to azulene and flavonoids. It is used in gastric mucosa irritations. It is defined as a gastroprotective drug. Azulene and camazulene give wound healing properties to essential oil. The symptoms of inflammation are relieving. Method: Plants (Achillea herba L.) Grown in July Organic Farm in Konya region were used. Analyzes were conducted in the laboratory of the Western Mediterranean Antalya Regional Directorate of Agriculture and Forestry. Total volatile oil content flavonoid amount was determined in the analysis. The amount of essential oil of lavender plant grown in Konya region was measured by hydrodistillation method. Essential oil components were measured by GC-MS / FID method. Result: In this study, we aimed to present phytochemical analysis of mercury (Achillea herba L.)) Plant grown in Konya region. Total essential oil amount was found to be 0.62%. Piperitone takes the first place with 31.25% and p-mentha -1, 5-dien-8-ol with 14.49% and α-pinene with 10.61%. When the content analysis of European countries is examined in the literature studies, it is seen that the amount of Kamuzulen and monoterpene in the plants grown in Estonia region is higher than other European countries (Hungary, Greece, Moldova, Lithuania, and Germany). Millefolii herba is recommended as gastroprotective drug. It is also used after prostate adenectomy because of its antiinflammatory properties.

Chemical Composition and Assessment of Antimicrobial Activity of Lavender Essential Oil and Some By-Products.

The producers of essential oils from the Republic of Moldova care about the quality of their products and at the same time, try to capitalize on the waste from processing. The purpose of the present study was to analyze the chemical composition of lavender (Lavanda angustifolia L.) essential oil and some by-products derived from its production (residual water, residual herbs), as well as to assess their “in vitro” antimicrobial activity. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of essential oils produced by seven industrial manufacturers led to the identification of 41 constituents that meant 96.80–99.79% of the total. The main constituents are monoterpenes (84.08–92.55%), followed by sesquiterpenes (3.30–13.45%), and some aliphatic compounds (1.42–3.90%). The high-performance liquid chromatography analysis allowed the quantification of known triterpenes, ursolic, and oleanolic acids, in freshly dried lavender plants and in the residual by-products after hydrodistillation of the essential oil. The lavender essential oil showed good antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Xanthomonas campestris, Erwinia carotovora at 300 μg/mL concentration, and Erwinia amylovora, Candida utilis at 150 μg/mL concentration, respectively. Lavender plant material but also the residual water and ethanolic extracts from the solid waste residue showed high antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus niger, Alternaria alternata, Penicillium chrysogenum, Bacillus sp., and Pseudomonas aeroginosa strains, at 0.75–6.0 μg/mL, 0.08–0.125 μg/mL, and 0.05–4.0 μg/mL, respectively.