Lavender Flowers Research Articles

Environmental and developmental factors affect essential oil production and quality of Lavandula angustifolia during flowering period

The world demand for lavender essential oil is still increasing. Despite of growing interest and the commercial importance of lavender oil it is not clear how environmental and developmental factors influence the optimum period of harvesting lavender flowers for essential oil production. In this report, it was evaluated how the quality and quantity of Lavandula angustifolia cv. Etherio essential oil (EO) is influenced during blooming by environmental factors. It was examined if lavender EO is correlated with gene expression during blooming, targeting to manage the optimum EO harvesting time. The EO content was positively regulated by temperature and flowering stage development while it was negatively affected by rainfall during flowering period. The quality of EO and specifically linalool content was influenced by temperature, flower development, LaLINS expression and rainfall. Although rainfalls remarkably decrease linalool production, the quality of lavender oil was recovered after ten days, suggesting that linalool biosynthesis is regulated during flowering period by both environmental and developmental cues. It is suggested, that the optimum harvesting period to obtain valuable lavender essential oil is when flowering reaches at 60%, ambient temperature is over 26°C and no precipitations were occurred ten days before harvesting.

Microwave assisted extraction of essential oils from enzymatically pretreated lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller)

Abstract In this study, microwave assisted a hydrodistillation process (MWHD) of essential oils from lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Miller) was investigated. In order to examine any potential differences in essential oil extraction, the lavender flowers underwent enzymatic pretreatment. A 23 factorial design of experiments, combined with statistical methods of data analysis were used to optimize enzymatic pretreatment and to evaluate the influence of major variables (enzyme concentration, temperature and pH) on the performance of the microwave assisted extraction. Under optimal conditions, an extraction yield of 24 mg oil g−1 substrate was achieved (an increase by approximately 25% in comparison with the classic extraction conditions of conventional hydrodistillation). The main compounds of the essential oils obtained were analyzed and identified by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Analyzing the data obtained indicated that the content of main compounds (linalool and linalyl acetate − 73%) was greater than that obtained by conventional extraction (67%).

Apalachee Crapemyrtle—Lagerstroemia indica × fauriei ‘Apalachee’

‘Apalachee’ crapemyrtle is a small deciduous tree with lavender flowers, dark green leaves, and cinnamon-orange bark. Lagerstroemia indica x fauriei ‘Apalachee’ is one of the hybrids released in 1987 from the breeding program of the U.S. National Arboretum. It grows as an upright to vase-shaped multi-stemmed tree in USDA Cold Hardiness Zones 7a-9b. This 2-page fact sheet was written by Gary W. Knox and published by the UF Department of Environmental Horticulture, December 2013.
 ENH1230/EP491: Apalachee Crapemyrtle—Lagerstroemia indica × fauriei ‘Apalachee’ (ufl.edu)

Ecological wool dyeing with pulps of lavender, broom, and red wine

The pulps of agricultural products used industrially in Isparta (Turkey) which contain natural dye pigments were used to obtain low-cost natural dyes. Natural dyes were obtained with the extraction method from the pulps of lavender and Spartium junceum flowers after oil extraction and the pulp of Dimrit grape red wine. The dyeing of wool yarns with these compounds as a natural dye has been studied and ecological wool dyeing achieved by using nontoxic and ecological mordants. Natural dyes optimum extraction times were analyzed. Dyed wool yarns washing, rubbing, and light fastness tests and spectrophotometric measurements were performed. In addition, wastewater analysis were achieved and cost estimates of natural and synthetic dyeing methods were evaluated and compared.

Investigation of cultivated lavender (Lavandula officinalis L.) extraction and its extracts

In this study essential oil content was determined in lavender flowers and leaves by hydrodistillation. Physical and chemical characteristics of the isolated oils were determined. By using CO2 in supercritical state the extraction of lavender flowers was performed with a selected solvent flow under isothermal and isobaric conditions. By the usage of gas chromatography in combination with mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector (GC/FID) the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the obtained essential oil and supercritical extracts (SFE) was carried out. Also, the analysis of individual SFE extracts obtained during different extraction times was performed. It turned out that the main components of the analysed samples were linalool, linalool acetate, lavandulol, caryophyllene oxide, lavandulyl acetate, terpinen-4-ol and others. Two proposed models were used for modelling the extraction system lavender flower - supercritical CO2 on the basis of experimental results obtained by examining the extraction kinetics of this system. The applied models fitted well with the experimental results.

The Potential of Use Lavender from Vegetable Waste as Effective Antibacterial and Sedative Agents

Only the flowers of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) are utilized for the medical purposes. The aim of the current study was to compare the chemical composition, concentrations of flavonoids and sesquiterpene acids in the leafy stems in two varieties of lavender oils the ‘Blue River’ (BR) and the ‘Ellegance Purple’ (EP). Their biological activity against four pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli and Enterococcus faecalis was study. The main constituents were borneol (13.8-12.4%), and caryophyllene oxide (8.0- 8.7%). Total flavonoids content were similar in both plants, from 341 to 352 mg/100 g. The valerenic acid was from 1.08 to 0.81 mg/100 g in BR and EP, respectively. The acetoxyvalerenic acid was from 45.9 to 14.0 mg/100 g, respectively. The highest increase of S. aureus bacteria was inhibited by the activity of the essential oils from both varieties. The less effect of inhibition was noticed for Escherichia coli for both plants.

Antidepressant-Like Effects of 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)lactic Acid Isolated from Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) Flowers in Mice

Antidepressant-Like Effects of 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)lactic Acid Isolated from Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) Flowers in Mice

Cardioprotective Effect of the Aqueous Extract of Lavender Flower against Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

This study was conducted to evaluate the cardioprotective property of the aqueous extract of lavender flower (LFAE). The myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury of rat was prepared by Langendorff retrograde perfusion technology. The heart was preperfused with K-H solution containing LFAE for 10 min before 20 minutes global ischemia, and then the reperfusion with K-H solution was conducted for 45 min. The left ventricular developed pressure (LVDP) and the maximum up/downrate of left ventricular pressure (±dp/dtmax) were recorded by physiological recorder as the myocardial function and the myocardial infarct size was detected by TTC staining. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase (CK) activities in the effluent were measured to determine the myocardial injury degree. The superoxide anion dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) in myocardial tissue were detected to determine the oxidative stress degree. The results showed that the pretreatment with LFAE significantly decreased the myocardial infarct size and also decreased the LDH, CK activities, and MDA level, while it increased the LVDP, ±dp/dtmax, SOD activities, and the coronary artery flow. Our findings indicated that LFAE could provide protection for heart against the I/R injury which may be related to the improvement of myocardial oxidative stress states.

Comparison of qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of hydrolate and essential oils of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)

The chemical composition of essential oils and hydrolate from dried lavender flowers (Lavandula angustifolia) was determined. Organic compounds were isolated from the hydrolate by the liquid–liquid (LLE) method. Optimal conditions for LLE (pentane, five extraction cycles, 40 mL, salting out [5% NaCl]) were determined by the Taguchi method. As many as forty-seven compounds were identified both in the essential oil (Oe) and in the essential oil isolated during the preparation of hydrolate (OeH), representing 94.9% of the content of Oe and 95.7% of OeH. The main compounds in OeH and Oe are: linalool (24.6% and 24.9%, respectively), linalyl acetate (14.4% and 18.0%, respectively) and borneol (6.2% and 6.3%, respectively). The most abundant compounds are oxygenated derivatives of monoterpenes (74.3% Oe, 73.4% OeH), including monoterpene alcohols (40.5% Oe, 38.0% OeH). In the hydrolate (H), twenty-four compounds, representing 83.8% of its composition, were identified. The main ingredients are: linalool (26.5%) and borneol (9.0%). Also here, oxygenated derivatives of monoterpenes predominate (78.1%), consisting mainly of alcohol monoterpenes (50.7%). In the hydrolate, the presence of acetate linalyl, monoterpenes, or sesquiterpenes was not found. Quantitative analysis of Oe, OeH and H was conducted for selected chemical compounds.

Antioxidant Properties of Three Aromatic Herbs (Rosemary, Thyme and Lavender) in Oil‐in‐Water Emulsions

AbstractLipid oxidation is the major form of deterioration in foods because it decreases food quality and nutritional value, and may have negative health implications. Selected aromatic plant extracts from leaves, flowers and stems of rosemary, thyme and lavender were investigated for their antioxidant activity. The total polyphenol content was determined by the Folin–Ciocalteu assay and the antioxidant capacity was determined by the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl, oxygen radical absorbance capacity and ferric‐reducing antioxidant power assays. For all four antioxidant assays, the extracts from thyme flowers, lavender leaves and thyme leaves had the highest antioxidant activity, followed by rosemary stems, rosemary leaves, and lavender stems, and the lavender flowers and thyme stems had the lowest antioxidant activity. The antioxidant activity was correlated with the polyphenol content, although minor deviations were observed. In oil‐in‐water emulsion, extracts from rosemary leaves and thyme leaves were most effective at retarding oxidation followed by the rosemary stems and thyme flowers. Extracts from thyme flowers and lavender leaves were less effective in the emulsion than predicted by the homogeneous antioxidant assays. This study demonstrated the potential use of plants extract as substitutes for synthetic antioxidants.

Longer tongues and swifter handling: why do more bumble bees (Bombus spp.) than honey bees (Apis mellifera) forage on lavender (Lavandula spp.)?

Abstract Lavender (Lavandula spp.) flowers attract more bumble bees (Bombus spp.) than honey bees (Apis mellifera). Counts of bees foraging on Lavandula × intermedia ‘Grosso’ at the University of Sussex campus, showed that bumble bees (92%) greatly outnumbered honey bees (8%). This was not due to a scarcity of honey bees, as the reverse ratio (94% honey bees vs. 6% bumble bees) occurred on borage (Borago officinalis) at the same location. Video analysis of free‐flying bees revealed that all bumble bee species present (Bombus terrestris/lucorum, Bombus pascuorum, and Bombus lapidarius) handled lavender flowers three times faster than honey bees (mean extraction times: 0.38, 0.37, 0.34 s respectively, vs. 1.30 s; all P < 0.001). Honey bee tongue length (6.6 mm) was approximately 2 mm shorter than those of bumble bees (7.8–8.9 mm) and 1 mm shorter than the lavender corolla tube (c. 7 mm). In addition, bumble bees probed twice as many lavender flowers encountered than honey bees (86% vs. 46%). Experimentally reducing effective corolla tube length with scalpel incisions significantly decreased extraction time for honey bees (from 1.11 to 0.76 s; P < 0.001) but not for bumble bees (0.33 to 0.28 s; P = 0.266). Results suggest that honey bees are deterred from foraging on lavender because they are being outcompeted by bumble bees, which forage more efficiently.

Optimization of Ultrasonic Enhanced Salt‐Containing Hydrodistillation by Response Surface Methodology

AbstractAn ultrasonic enhanced salt‐containing hydrodistillation (UESHD) method for separating essential oil from lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) flowers was investigated using response surface methodology (RSM). The experimental data obtained from a 27‐run experiment were fitted to a second‐order polynomial equation. The optimal conditions were determined by the 3D response surface and the contour plots derived from the models. The efficiency of UESHD and conventional hydrodistillation (HD) was compared. The extraction yield of UESHD was two‐fold higher than that of HD. In addition, GC‐MS results indicated some differences in composition and content between the two essential oils from UESHD and HD.

Distillation Time Effect on Lavender Essential Oil Yield and Composition

Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) is one of the most widely grown essential oil crops in the world. Commercial extraction of lavender oil is done using steam distillation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the length of the distillation time (DT) on lavender essential oil yield and composition when extracted from dried flowers. Therefore, the following distillation times (DT) were tested in this experiment: 1.5 min, 3 min, 3.75 min, 7.5 min, 15 min, 30 min, 60 min, 90 min, 120 min, 150 min, 180 min, and 240 min. The essential oil yield (range 0.5-6.8%) reached a maximum at 60 min DT. The concentrations of cineole (range 6.4-35%) and fenchol (range 1.7-2.9%) were highest at the 1.5 min DT and decreased with increasing length of the DT. The concentration of camphor (range 6.6-9.2%) reached a maximum at 7.5-15 min DT, while the concentration of linalool acetate (range 15-38%) reached a maximum at 30 min DT. Results suggest that lavender essential oil yield may not increase after 60 min DT. The change in essential oil yield, and the concentrations of cineole, fenchol and linalool acetate as DT changes were modeled very well by the asymptotic nonlinear regression model. DT may be used to modify the chemical profile of lavender oil and to obtain oils with differential chemical profiles from the same lavender flowers. DT must be taken into consideration when citing or comparing reports on lavender essential oil yield and composition.

‘Blue Angel’ Winter-hardy Hibiscus (Hibiscus ×moscheutos L.)

Winter-hardy hibiscuses are herbaceous perennials in the mallow (Malvaceae) family that belong to six species native to the United States: H. coccineus Walter (scarlet rose mallow), H. dasycalyx S.F Blake and Shiller (Neches River rose mallow), H. grandiflorus Michx. (swamp rose mallow), H. laevis All. (halberdleaf rose mallow), H. lasiocarpos Cav. (hairy-seeded rose mallow), and H. moscheutos L. (crimsoneyed rose mallow) (Lawton, 2004; Winters, 1970). All species in the winterhardy hibiscus group have the same complement of chromosomes (2n = 38) (Klips, 1995) and hybridize relatively easily. They grow naturally in marshy habitats in the eastern part of the United States to southern Ontario (Canada) and in California (H. lasiocarpos). Winter-hardy hibiscuses, especially H. moscheutos and its hybrids, have attractive, tropical-looking flowers with a size of 5 to 30 cm in diameter. Winter-hardy hibiscus species are long-day plants (Warner and Erwin, 2001). All species of winter-hardy hibiscus are long-day plants (Warner and Erwin, 2001) that abundantly produce flowers from midsummer through late fall. The flowers last 1 d and colors range from white through pink to red, depending on the species. Recently developed cultivars of H. moscheutos such as ‘Fantasia’ (PP11,853) and ‘Plum Crazy’ (PP11,854) have lavender flowers. Breeders have also developed cultivars with different leaf shapes and colors and varying plant architecture. ‘Blue Angel’ has been released to provide a cultivar with a unique violet–blue flower color, which is not reported for winter-hardy hibiscus species.

Repellent Effect of the Plants Lavender and Caraway on the Migration of Rhyzopertha dominica populations (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)

The effect of the powdered plants - lavender flowers Lavandula officinalis L and caraway fruits Carum carvi L on the migrating activity of the lesser grain borer Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius 1792) was investigated. The experiments were conducted in the laboratory in the temperature of 28 °C, 60 ± 5 % RH. In the conditions enabling migration of adult individuals of R dominica, addition to wheat grains lavender or caraway containing essential oils caused high emigration of the pests from the substrate with these plants added. Both the plants have a repelling effect on R dominica, especially in the initial period of infesting the substrate. It was then that a particularly strong repelling effect of lavender was observed: during the 100 days of the experiments emigration was 90-100%. Application of caraway in the first 70 days of the experiments resulted in 80-95% emigration. Moreover, lavender causes higher mortality of insects.

Substrate promiscuity of a rosmarinic acid synthase from lavender (Lavandula angustifolia L.)

One of the most common types of modification of secondary metabolites is the acylation of oxygen- and nitrogen-containing substrates to produce esters and amides, respectively. Among the known acyltransferases, the members of the plant BAHD family are capable of acylating a wide variety of substrates. Two full-length acyltransferase cDNAs (LaAT1 and 2) were isolated from lavender flowers (Lavandula angustifolia L.) by reverse transcriptase-PCR using degenerate primers based on BAHD sequences. Recombinant LaAT1 exhibited a broad substrate tolerance accepting (hydroxy)cinnamoyl-CoAs as acyl donors and not only tyramine, tryptamine, phenylethylamine and anthranilic acid but also shikimic acid and 4-hydroxyphenyllactic acid as acceptors. Thus, LaLT1 forms esters and amides like its phylogenetic neighbors. In planta LaAT1 might be involved in the biosynthesis of rosmarinic acid, the ester of caffeic acid and 3,4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid, a major constituent of lavender flowers. LaAT2 is one of three members of clade VI with unknown function.

Effect of Drying on the Composition of Essential Oil from Lavandula angustifolia

Qualitative and quantitative differences in essential oil hydrodistilled from fresh and dried flowers of lavender (Lavandula angustifolia) harvested in Poland were investigated by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS) and near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Drying prior to hydrodistillation resulted in large losses of essential oil (over 40 %). Sixty-five compounds were identified in the essential oil isolated from fresh material and 73 in that from dried material. The main ingredients of the essential oil were oxygenated monoterpenes (over 70 %). Essential oil from dried lavender was shown to have smaller quantities of monoterpene esters (12.9 %) with an increased amount of alcohol (4.3 %).The possibility of using NIRS for rapid and precise identification of essential oils as well as for determination of the origin of plant material was successfully demonstrated.

Chemical compounds and essential oil release through decomposition process from Lavandula stoechas in Mediterranean region

All aromatic plants emit volatile substances into the environment either during their life or during the decomposition process. During decomposition, these volatile constituents affect the top soil microflora and the nutrients recycle process. Lavandula stoechas is a perennial aromatic shrub, rich in aromatic substances which can be found abundant across the Mediterranean. The aim of the present study was to investigate the essential oil degradation during decomposition process of L. stoechas and how the essential oil major compounds are released during this process. Fresh leaves and flowers of lavender were used for this study using the litter bag technique. The essential oil content of the initial plant was 1.46% dw and after seventeen months period dropped at 0.06%. There were no differences in oil degradation among the different experimental sites. Most of the essential oil compounds had disappeared after a year. However, the most toxic compounds in the plant material still remained after seventeen months.

Lavender inflorescence

We analysed VOC composition of complete inflorescences and single flowers of lavender during the flowering period. Our analyses, focused on the 20 most abundant terpenes, showed that three groups of components could be separated according to their patterns of variation during inflorescence ontogeny. These three groups were associated with three developmental stages: flower in bud, flower in bloom and faded flower. The expression of two terpene synthases (TPS) was followed using qPCR during inflorescence ontogeny. A comparison of these chemical and molecular analyses suggested that VOC production in lavender spike is mainly regulated at the transcriptional level. These results highlighted that lavender could be a model plant for future investigations on terpene biosynthesis and regulation, and could be used to explore the functions of terpene metabolites.

Review: Sonoran Desert Life: Understanding, Insight and Enjoyment

Review: Sonoran Desert Life: Understanding, Insight, and Enjoyment By Gerald Rosenthal Reviewed by Muhammed Tayyeb Javed Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Pakistan Rosenthal, Gerald. Sonoran Desert Life: Understanding, Insight and Enjoyment. Scottsdale, AZ: University of Arizona Press, 2008. 306pp. ISBN 9780615186719. US$27.95, paper. The Sonoran Desert is a vast, arid region covering some 120,000 square miles, most of which is located in southwestern Arizona and southeastern California as well as Sonora and Baja California in Mexico. The book under review is a fascinating book on the flora and fauna of the American Sonoran Desert by a world-renowned biologist and biochemical entomologist. The unique aspect of this book is the role that beetles, bugs, bats and bees play in maintaining genetic diversity by dispersing pollen and assuring that eternal life thrives in the Sonoran Desert. More than 300 plant species from 70 families in the desert are provided in this compact multicolored book. It provides information on flowers, stems, involucres, tubercles, spines, leaves, calyx and fruit. The book is divided in three broad sections and further divided into eighteen chapters. The opening section includes information on the Sonoran Desert, how to use the book, and basic botanical information for non-professionals. The main section is distributed into seven chapters labeled and marked in the range of colors shown by Sonoran plants: Yuccas; White, White-Green and Green Flowers; Yellow Flowers; Red, Pink, Magenta and Purple Flowers; Orange and Apricot Flowers; Blue, Violet and Lavender Flowers; and Large Shrubs and Trees. The last section provides a comprehensive glossary of more than 225 terminologies used in the book along with information sources. The technical aspects related to the production of the photos are also provided. The photography was done using a Canon 1Ds MII (16.7 MP) camera equipped with a Canon 100 mm EF lens. Image manipulation was achieved using ULEAD Photo Explorer 8.5 and Photoshop 7.0 software. The book Sonoran Desert Life: Understanding, Insight and Enjoyment could be of interest to high school teachers and students as well as individuals interested in arid land biodiversity. The work is also useful in understanding the special and unique Sonoran desert ecosystem. Muhammad Tayyeb Javed, PhD. , Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences, P.O. Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan. TEL: 92-51-2207381-3 x 3356. Electronic Green Journal, Issue 29, Winter 2009, ISSN:1076-7975