Lava Discharge Research Articles

Morphological evolution of a new volcanic islet sustained by compound lava flows

We investigated the creation of a volcanic islet and emplacement of lava flows in the sea by analyzing data from the island-forming eruption at Nishinoshima, Japan, that has been continuing since November 2013. Aerial observations and satellite images were used to perform a quantitative analysis of the eruption processes. The most intriguing characteristic of the lava flows is the development of lobes and tubes from breakouts and bifurcations of andesitic ‘a’ā-type lava flows. Internal pathways that fed lava to the active flow front were eventually developed by crust solidification and dominated the lava transport. The average discharge was ~2 × 10 5 m 3 /day, and the total volume of erupted material reached ~0.1 km 3 at the end of February 2015. Fractal analysis of the lava-flow margins suggests that the growth pattern is self-similar, with a fractal dimension (D) of ~1.08–1.18, which is within the range of subaerial basaltic lava flows. The morphological evolution of Nishinoshima is controlled primarily by effusion of lava with an apparent viscosity of 10 4 –10 6 Pa∙s, average discharge of ~2.3 m 3 /s, and eruption duration lasting ~2 yr. Our data and analyses suggest that the effect of lava coming in contact with seawater, as well as the variations in the lava discharge rate on local and overall scales, are important factors affecting the development of crust and the lava transport system.

Influence of pre-existing topography on downflow lava discharge rates estimated from thermal infrared airborne data

Influence of pre-existing topography on downflow lava discharge rates estimated from thermal infrared airborne data

Satellite and Ground Based Thermal Observation of the 2014 Effusive Eruption at Stromboli Volcano

As specifically designed platforms are still unavailable at this point in time, lava flows are usually monitored remotely with the use of meteorological satellites. Generally, meteorological satellites have a low spatial resolution, which leads to uncertain results. This paper presents the first long term satellite monitoring of active lava flows on Stromboli volcano (August–November 2014) at high spatial resolution (160 m) and relatively high temporal resolution (~3 days). These data were retrieved by the small satellite Technology Experiment Carrier-1 (TET-1), which was developed and built by the German Aerospace Center (DLR). The satellite instrument is dedicated to high temperature event monitoring. The satellite observations were accompanied by field observations conducted by thermal cameras. These provided short time lava flow dynamics and validation for satellite data. TET-1 retrieved 27 datasets over Stromboli during its effusive activity. Using the radiant density approach, TET-1 data were used to calibrate the MODVOLC data and estimate the time averaged lava discharge rate. With a mean output rate of 0.87 m3/s during the three-month-long eruption, we estimate the total erupted volume to be 7.4 × 106 m3.

Selective environmental stress from sulphur emitted by continental flood basalt eruptions

Several biotic crises during the past 300 million years have been linked to episodes of continental flood basalt volcanism, and in particular to the release of massive quantities of magmatic sulphur gas species. Flood basalt provinces were typically formed by numerous individual eruptions, each lasting years to decades. However, the environmental impact of these eruptions may have been limited by the occurrence of quiescent periods that lasted hundreds to thousands of years. Here we use a global aerosol model to quantify the sulphur-induced environmental effects of individual, decade-long flood basalt eruptions representative of the Columbia River Basalt Group, 16.5–14.5 million years ago, and the Deccan Traps, 65 million years ago. For a decade-long eruption of Deccan scale, we calculate a decadal-mean reduction in global surface temperature of 4.5 K, which would recover within 50 years after an eruption ceased unless climate feedbacks were very different in deep-time climates. Acid mists and fogs could have caused immediate damage to vegetation in some regions, but acid-sensitive land and marine ecosystems were well-buffered against volcanic sulphur deposition effects even during century-long eruptions. We conclude that magmatic sulphur from flood basalt eruptions would have caused a biotic crisis only if eruption frequencies and lava discharge rates had been high and sustained for several centuries at a time.

Enhanced volcanic hot-spot detection using MODIS IR data: results from the MIROVA system

Abstract We describe a new volcanic hotspot detection system, named Middle InfraRed Observation of Volcanic Activity (MIROVA), based on the analysis of infrared data acquired by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer sensor (MODIS). MIROVA uses the middle infrared radiation (MIR), measured by MODIS, in order to detect and measure the heat radiation deriving from volcanic activity. The algorithm combines spectral and spatial principles, allowing the detection of heat sources from 1 megawatt (MW) to more than 10 gigawatt (GW). This provides a unique opportunity to: (i) recognize small-scale variations in thermal output that may precede the onset of effusive activity; (ii) track the advance of large lava flows; (iii) estimate lava discharge rates; (iv) identify distinct effusive trends; and, lastly, (v) follow the cooling process of voluminous lava bodies for several months. Here we show the results obtained from data sets spanning 14 years recorded at the Stromboli and Mt Etna volcanoes, Italy, and we investigate the above aspects at these two persistently active volcanoes. Finally, we describe how the algorithm has been implemented within an operational near-real-time processing chain that enables the MIROVA system to provide data and infrared maps within 1–4 h of the satellite overpass.

The first quantitative estimates of parameters for the Tolbachik Fissure Eruption of 2012–2013 from aerophotogrammetric observations

This paper presents quantitative estimates of parameters for the Tolbachik Fissure Eruption of 2012–2013 (TFE) for the period between November 27, 2012 and June 5, 2013. It is shown that the eruption was the most violent during the first 2 days (with a mean lava discharge rate of 440 m3/s), when the maximum number of lava vents were active along the entire fissured zone. The rate was decreasing during the subsequent 2 weeks (the mean was 140 m3/s). Lava effusion had been occurring at an almost uniform rate at near 18 m3/s from the later half of December 2012 to June 2013. The eruption was predominantly effusive in character. Six months of activity yielded 0.52 km3 lava to cover an area of 35.23 km2. The volume of pyroclastics within 1.5 km of the new fissured zone did not exceed 0.1 km3. We made maps to show the location of the fissured zone, the main vents, and lava flows on the slope of Ploskii Tolbachik Volcano. It was found that the 1975–1976 collapse pit in the smaller summit caldera of Ploskii Tolbachik has been left nearly intact during the Tolbachik Fissure Eruption of 2012–2013.

Lava discharge rate estimates from thermal infrared satellite data for Pacaya Volcano during 2004–2010

Pacaya is one of the most active volcanoes in Central America and has produced lava flows frequently since 1961. All effusive activity between 1961 and 2009 was confined by an arcuate collapse scarp surrounding the northern and eastern flanks. However, the recent breaching of this topographic barrier, and the eruption of a large lava flow outside of the main center of activity, have allowed lava to extend into nearby populated areas, indicating the need for assessment and monitoring of lava flow hazards. We investigated whether a commonly used satellite-based model could produce accurate lava discharge rates for the purpose of near-real-time assessment of hazards during future eruptions and to assess the dynamics of this persistently degassing system. The model assumes a linear relationship between active lava flow area and time-averaged discharge rate (TADR) via a simple conversion factor. We calculated the conversion factor via two methods: (1) best-fitting of satellite-derived flow areas to ground-based estimates of lava flow volume, and (2) theoretically via a parameterized model that takes into account the physical properties of the lava. To apply the latter method, we sampled four lava flows and measured density, vesicularity, crystal content, and major element composition. We found the best agreement of conversion factors in the eruption with the most complete satellite coverage, and used data for these flows to define the linear relationship between area and discharge rate. The physical properties of the sampled flows were essentially identical, so that any discrepancy between the two methods of calculating conversion factors must be due to modeling errors or environmental factors unaccounted for by the parameterized model. However, our best-fitting method provides a new means to set the conversion appropriately, and to obtain self-consistent TADRs. We identified two distinct types of effusive activity at Pacaya: Type 1 activity characterized by initially high TADRs of about 1–10m3·s−1, followed by a waning phase, and Type 2 activity characterized by low, scattered TADRs of about 0.1–1m3·s−1. The risk associated with Type 1 activity is much higher, so identifying the Type 1 radiance signature in satellite imagery is useful for monitoring an ongoing eruption.

Thermal regimes and effusive trends at Nyamuragira volcano (DRC) from MODIS infrared data

Nyamuragira volcano is one of the most active African volcanoes. Eruptions have been occurring every 3–4 years throughout the last century. Here, we analyse satellite infrared data, collected by MODIS sensor to estimate the volcanic radiative power (VRP, in W) and energy (VRE; in J) released during the 2001, 2002, 2004, 2006–2007, 2010 and 2011–2012 eruptions. Based on the statistical distribution of VRP measurements, we found that thermal emissions at Nyamuragira fall into three distinct radiating regimes. The high-radiating regime occurs during the emplacement of poorly insulated lava flows and characterise most of the effusive activity. The moderate-radiating regime is associated with open-vent activity (Strombolian explosions and/or lava lake activity) eventually accompanied by the emplacement of short-lived and well-insulated flows. A third radiating regime (low-radiating regime) occurs during periods, which may last weeks to months, that follow each eruption and are associated with the cooling of the effused lava flows. By applying the radiant density approach to MODIS-derived VRP we also estimated the time-averaged lava discharge rates (TADR; in m3 s−1) and we analysed the effusive trends of the above eruptions. We found that the transition between the effusive and open-vent activity typically takes place when TADR reduces to low values (<5 m3 s−1) and marks a change in the eruptive style of the volcano. Finally, we observed a clear correlation between the volume of erupted lava and its cooling time. This suggests that the average thickness of the analysed lava flows is more variable than previously thought and sheds light on the uncertainty in calculating erupted volumes assuming that lava flow areas have uniform thickness.

Rheological control on the radiant density of active lava flows and domes

During an effusive–extrusive eruption, the capability of an active lava body (flow or dome) to radiate thermal energy depends on how the lava discharge rate is accommodated by the expansion of the magma body and by the cooling of its surface. This feature can be described by a single empirical parameter, defined “radiant density” (crad; in Jm−3) that, for a given discharge rate, expresses the efficiency of the lava body to change its area and/or to insulate its inner core, thus modulating the heat radiated from the active surface. By comparing the Volcanic Radiative Energy (VRE; in J), detected by MODIS during 28 eruptions at 18 active volcanoes, with their erupted lava volumes (Vol; in m3), we show that the radiant density (crad=VRE/Vol) is inversely proportional to the silica content of the erupted lava. Basic lavas (45–52wt.% SiO2) have the highest observed radiant density (1 to 4×108Jm−3) while intermediate (52–63wt.% SiO2) and acidic (>63wt.% SiO2) lavas show a gradually lower radiant densities (1.5 to 9×107Jm−3 and 0.2 to 1×107Jm−3 for intermediate and acidic composition, respectively). We regard this correlation as the result of the control that the rheology of lavas exerts on cooling and spreading processes of related bodies. In particular, we found that for any given compositional group the radiant density is essentially related to a “characteristic thickness” of active lavas, at the time of a satellite acquisition.We suggest that the radiant density of effusive/extrusive lava bodies can be predicted (±50%) by means of an empirical relationship based on the SiO2 content of the erupted lava. This makes this parameter very useful in observing volcanic activity, especially in remote regions where access may not be possible. By measuring the energy radiated during an eruption and by assuming a lava composition (based on the tectonic setting or magmatic province), we suggest that the radiant density can be used to estimate lava discharge rates and erupted volumes for volcanoes characterised by effusive or extrusive activity.

Correction to “Thirty years of satellite‐derived lava discharge rates at Etna: Implications for steady volumetric output”

Correction to “Thirty years of satellite‐derived lava discharge rates at Etna: Implications for steady volumetric output”

Erratum to: Lava discharge during Etna’s January 2011 fire fountain tracked using MSG-SEVIRI

In the paper by Gouhier, M., Harris, A., Calvari, S., Labazuy, P., Guehenneux, Y., Donnadieu, F., Valade, S, entitled “Lava discharge during Etna’s January 2011 fire fountain tracked using MSG-SEVIRI” (Bull Volcanol (2012) 74:787–793, DOI 10.1007/s00445-011-0572-y), we present data from a Doppler radar (VOLDORAD 2B). This ground-based Lband radar has been monitoring the eruptive activity of the summit craters of Mt. Etna in real-time since July 2009 from a site about 3.5 km SSE of the craters. Examples of applications of this type of radar are reviewed by Donnadieu (2012) and shown on the VOLDORAD website (http://wwwobs. univbpclermont.fr/SO/televolc/voldorad/). Although designed and owned by the Observatoire de Physique du Globe in Clermont-Ferrand (OPGC), France, VOLDORAD 2B is operated jointly with the INGV-Catania (Italy) in the framework of a technical and scientific collaboration agreement between the INGV of Catania, the French CNRS and the OPGC-Universite Blaise Pascal in ClermontFerrand. The system also utilizes a dedicated micropatch antenna designed at the University of Calabria (Boccia et al. 2010) and owned by INGV. The objective of the joint acquisition of the radar data by INGV-Catania and the OPGC is twofold: (1) to mitigate volcanic risks at Etna by better assessing the hazards arising from ash plumes and (2) to allow detailed study of volcanic activity and its environmental impact. In the paper by Gouhier et al. (2012), we failed to highlight this important collaboration between the INGV Catania and the OPGC; a cooperation essential for the past, current and future generation of such valuable data sets. Specifically we wish to acknowledge the roles of Mauro Coltelli, Michele Prestifilippo and Simona Scollo for their important input into this project, and pivotal role in setting up, and maintaining, this collaborative deployment.

An emergent strategy for volcano hazard assessment: From thermal satellite monitoring to lava flow modeling

Spaceborne remote sensing techniques and numerical simulations have been combined in a web-GIS framework (LAV@HAZARD) to evaluate lava flow hazard in real time. By using the HOTSAT satellite thermal monitoring system to estimate time-varying TADR (time averaged discharge rate) and the MAGFLOW physics-based model to simulate lava flow paths, the LAV@HAZARD platform allows timely definition of parameters and maps essential for hazard assessment, including the propagation time of lava flows and the maximum run-out distance. We used LAV@HAZARD during the 2008–2009 lava flow-forming eruption at Mt Etna (Sicily, Italy). We measured the temporal variation in thermal emission (up to four times per hour) during the entire duration of the eruption using SEVIRI and MODIS data. The time-series of radiative power allowed us to identify six diverse thermal phases each related to different dynamic volcanic processes and associated with different TADRs and lava flow emplacement conditions. Satellite-derived estimates of lava discharge rates were computed and integrated for the whole period of the eruption (almost 14months), showing that a lava volume of between 32 and 61million cubic meters was erupted of which about 2/3 was emplaced during the first 4months. These time-varying discharge rates were then used to drive MAGFLOW simulations to chart the spread of lava as a function of time. TADRs were sufficiently low (<30m3/s) that no lava flows were capable of flowing any great distance so that they did not pose a hazard to vulnerable (agricultural and urban) areas on the flanks of Etna.

The case of the 1981 eruption of Mount Etna: An example of very fast moving lava flows

Mount Etna despite being an extremely active volcano which, during the last 400 years, has produced many lava flow flank eruptions has rarely threatened or damaged populated areas. The reconstruction of the temporal evolution of potentially hazardous flank eruptions represents a useful contribution to reducing the impact of future eruptions by and analyzing actions to be taken for protecting sensitive areas. In this work, we quantitatively reconstructed the evolution of the 1981 lava flow field of Mt Etna, which threatened the town of Randazzo. This reconstruction was used to evaluate the cumulated volume, the time averaged discharge rate trend and to estimate its maximum value. The analysis was conducted by comparing pre‐ and post‐eruption topographic surfaces, extracted by processing historical photogrammetric data sets and by utilizing the eruption chronology to establish the lava flow front positions at different times. An unusually high discharge rate (for Etna) of 640 m3/s was obtained, which corresponds well with the very fast advance rate observed for the main lava flow. A comparison with other volcanoes, presenting high discharge rate, was proposed for finding a clue to unveil the 1981 Etna eruptive mechanism. A model was presented to explain the high discharge rate, which includes an additional contribution to the lava discharge caused by the interception of a shallow magma reservoir by a dike rising from depth and the subsequent emptying of the reservoir.

DOWNFLOW code and LIDAR technology for lava flow analysis and hazard assessment at Mount Etna

The use of a lava-flow simulation (DOWNFLOW) probabilistic code and airborne light detection and ranging (LIDAR) technology are combined to analyze the emplacement of compound lava flow fields at Mount Etna (Sicily, Italy). The goal was to assess the hazard posed by lava flows. The LIDAR-derived time series acquired during the 2006 Mount Etna eruption records the changing topography of an active lava-flow field. These short-time-interval, high-resolution topographic surveys provide a detailed quantitative picture of the topographic changes. The results highlight how the flow field evolves as a number of narrow (5-15 m wide) disjointed flow units that are fed simultaneously by uneven lava pulses that advance within formed channels. These flow units have widely ranging advance velocities (3-90 m/h). Overflows, bifurcations and braiding are also clearly displayed. In such a complex scenario, the suitability of deterministic codes for lava-flow simulation can be hampered by the fundamental difficulty of measuring the flow parameters (e.g. the lava discharge rate, or the lava viscosity of a single flow unit). However, the DOWNFLOW probabilistic code approaches this point statistically and needs no direct knowledge of flow parameters. DOWNFLOW intrinsically accounts for complexities and perturbations of lava flows by randomly varying the pre-eruption topography. This DOWNFLOW code is systematically applied here over Mount Etna, to derive a lava-flow hazard map based on: (i) the topography of the volcano; (ii) the probability density function for vent opening; and (iii) a law for the expected lava-flow length for all of the computational vents considered. Changes in the hazard due to the recent morphological evolution of Mount Etna have also been addressed.

Radiative heat power at Stromboli volcano during 2000–2011: Twelve years of MODIS observations

Twelve years of night-time MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) observations, has been analysed to detect and quantify the radiative heat power emitted by Stromboli volcano (from March 2000 to September 2011). Using an accurate background subtraction of the MODIS signal at 4μm, we were able to discriminate two main regimes of thermal radiation, related to different levels of volcanic activity. Effusive eruptions (occurred on December 28, 2002 and February 27, 2007) radiated at an average of ~186MW with a frequency of alert detection of 50–95%. Conversely, during the typical strombolian activity, an average of ~9MW is radiated, with a frequency of alert detection of 0–45%.Although during the effusive eruptions the radiative power is basically controlled by the lava discharge rate, our results suggest that during non-effusive periods (strombolian regime) both the intensity and the frequency of MODIS alerts are controlled by the height of the magmatic column feeding the activity at the surface. In particular we found that a radiative power of ~50MW corresponds to a high magma column which is exposed, in the vent area, at the same rate in which the deeper gas-rich magma is typically supplied within the feeding system of Stromboli (~0.3m3s−1). In this condition the magmatic system approaches steady state regimes. Above this threshold a transition from strombolian to effusive regimes may occur as shown by the detection of ~50MW, 8–10days before the onset of both the last two major flank eruptions. These values were reached after 1–2months of gradual increase of the radiative power which was likely associated the rising of the magma column within the shallowest portion of the conduit. In addition our data suggest that over the years 2000–2011 several cycles of rise and fall of the magma column have occurred, which however did not culminate into an effusive eruption but only into recurrent episodes of sustained spattering or fountaining and summit overflows. These fluctuations has substantially increased in frequency and intensity after the 2007 eruption thus suggesting that this event has perturbed in some way the shallow plumbing system of Stromboli.We stress that the detection of a radiative power higher than 50MW is a clear evidence of a very high magma column, which may prelude the onset of an effusive eruption and/or periods of sustained vent activity. In conclusion, we suggest that systematic analysis of MODIS data can be used to detect variations in the intensity of strombolian activity and may considerably improve volcano surveillance at Stromboli, as well as at other open-system volcanoes.

Lava discharge during Etna's January 2011 fire fountain tracked using MSG-SEVIRI

Etna's January 2011 eruption provided an excellent opportunity to test the ability of Meteosat Second Generation satellite's Spinning Enhanced Visible and InfraRed Imager (SEVIRI) sensor to track a short-lived effusive event. The presence of lava fountaining, the rapid expansion of lava flows, and the complexity of the resulting flow field make such events difficult to track from the ground. During the Etna's January 2011 eruption, we were able to use thermal data collected by SEVIRI every 15 min to generate a time series of the syn-eruptive heat flux. Lava discharge waxed over a ~1-h period to reach a peak that was first masked from the satellite view by a cold tephra plume and then was of sufficient intensity to saturate the 3.9-μm channel. Both problems made it impossible to estimate time-averaged lava discharge rates using the syn-eruptive heat flux curve. Therefore, through integration of data obtained by ground-based Doppler radar and thermal cameras, as well as ancillary satellite data (from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer), we developed a method that allowed us to identify the point at which effusion stagnated, to allow definition of a lava cooling curve. This allowed retrieval of a lava volume of ~1.2 × 106 m3, which, if emitted for 5 h, was erupted at a mean output rate of ~70 m3 s−1. The lava volume estimated using the cooling curve method is found to be similar to the values inferred from field measurements.

Thirty years of satellite-derived lava discharge rates at Etna: Implications for steady volumetric output

[1] We present a 30 year long data set of satellite-derived time-averaged lava discharge rates (TADR) for Mount Etna volcano (Sicily, Italy), spanning 1980–2010 and comprising 1792 measurements during 23 eruptions. We use this to classify eruptions on the basis of magnitude and intensity, as well as the shape of the TADR time series which characterizes each effusive event. We find that while 1983–1993 was characterized by less frequent but longer-duration effusive eruptions at lower TADRs, 2000–2010 was characterized by more frequent eruptions of shorter duration and higher TADRs. However, roughly the same lava volume was erupted during both of these 11 year long periods, so that the volumetric output was linear over the entire 30 year period, increasing at a rate of 0.8 m3 s−1 between 1980 and 2010. The cumulative volume record can be extended back in time using data available in the literature. This allows us to assess Etna's output history over 5 centuries and to place the current trend in historical context. We find that output has been stable at this rate since 1971. At this time, the output rate changed from a low discharge rate phase, which had characterized the period 1759 to 1970, to a high discharge rate phase. This new phase had the same output rate as the high discharge rate phase that characterized the period 1610–1669. The 1610–1669 phase ended with the most voluminous eruption of historic times.

A relation between lava discharge rate, thermal insulation, and flow area set using lidar data

A simple linear relation can be used to link time averaged discharge rate (TADR) and lava flow area (A). The relation applies to given insulation conditions, as described by the characteristic flow surface temperature (Te), and will vary from case‐to‐case depending on rheological and topographic influences on flow spreading. Most flows have insulation conditions that change through time, modifying the relationship between TADR and area as insulation conditions evolve. Using lidar data we can define TADR, the flow area that the discharge feeds and Te, allowing generation of a case‐specific relation to convert satellite‐data‐derived flow areas to TADR. For Etna's 2006 lava flow field we obtain a relation whereby TADR = 5.6 × 10−6 A for well insulated conditions (Te = 100°C) and TADR = 1.5 × 10−4 A for poorly insulated conditions (Te = 600°C).

Reply to comment by Ferlito et al. on “Complex magma dynamics at Mount Etna revealed by seismic, thermal and volcanological data”

Reply to comment by Ferlito et al. on “Complex magma dynamics at Mount Etna revealed by seismic, thermal and volcanological data”

Lava discharge rates from satellite‐measured heat flux

A commonly used method to convert lava flow area to volume flux using low spatial resolution satellite data rests on two primary assumptions, that: (1) volume flux is related to flow area, and (2) lava surfaces cool exponentially with time and distance from the source. Field data show that both assumptions are valid. The ensuing relationship is an empirical one in which flow area is proportional to time‐averaged discharge rate under given compositional, insulation, rheological and ambient conditions. Thus, the proportionality has to be determined depending on flow conditions, and the conversion set and applied on a case‐by‐case basis.