Latrine Sites Research Articles

Latrine marking patterns of badgers (Meles meles) with respect to population density and range size

AbstractEuropean badgers (Meles meles) use shared defecation sites, termed latrines, to demarcate group ranges. While some latrines are small, comprising few pits with few fresh scats spread over a small area, others are large, comprising many pits with many fresh droppings and extending over a large area. Although many studies have investigated badger latrine usage patterns, and speculated on latrine function, this variation in relative latrine size remains unexplained. Using nearest neighbor analyses, we analyzed the latrine positioning, use, and inter‐latrine distances from four study areas with different population densities. We found that latrines were spaced regularly throughout the range, and border marking was prioritized, increasing the chances of traversing badgers intercepting a latrine. While the numbers of latrines increased with group range size, the number of fresh feces per latrine decreased, suggesting that fresh feces may be a limiting resource in the maintenance of latrines, and that maintaining latrine spacing pattern is more important than the actual number of fresh feces in each latrine. We thus posited that, where territories are small and groups large, the capacity to produce feces exceeds the minimum need for perimeter marking, resulting in fecal redundancy and large latrines. In contrast, in larger territories, especially when occupied by smaller groups, badgers may experience fecal constraint, thus maintaining smaller latrines. We concluded that latrine maintenance and fecal scent‐marking activity in badgers involves a trade‐off between group size and group range area, leading to different degrees of fecal constraint, while energetic costs of signaling are minimized.

Environmental contamination and transmission of Ascaris suum in Danish organic pig farms.

BackgroundAlthough Ascaris suum is the most common pig nematode, the on-farm transmission dynamics are not well described.MethodsWe performed a 1-year field study on five organic pig farms, mapping egg contamination levels in pens and pasture soil as well as faecal egg counts in starter pigs, finisher pigs, dry and lactating sows. The uppermost bedding material was sampled from three pen areas (resting, intermediate and latrine) of shallow and deep litter pens.ResultsAscaris suum was found on all farms. Averaged across farm and season, the prevalence of A. suum was 48, 64, 28 and 15 % in starters, finishers, dry and lactating sows, respectively. For starters and finishers, the prevalence varied with season increasing towards the end of the year when 83–96 % of finishing pigs from each farm had fresh liver white spots. Farrowing pastures were contaminated with a mean of 78–171 larvated eggs/kg dry soil depending on farm, while pastures for starter pigs contained 290–5397 larvated eggs/kg dry soil. The concentration of eggs in soil was highest in the autumn. Indoors, all pen areas were contaminated with A. suum eggs at comparable levels for shallow and deep litter. Overall there were 106, 445 and 1331 eggs/g dry straw in the resting, intermediate and latrine areas, respectively. However, more eggs were undergoing development in resting areas (44 %) compared to intermediate (33 %) and latrine areas (13 %). Irrespective of area, more eggs were undergoing development in the autumn, but overall there were very few fully developed (i.e., infective) eggs in the bedding material. Laboratory embryonation of eggs from the bedding material nevertheless revealed that an overall mean of 79 % of the eggs were viable.ConclusionThe organic pigs of all ages were continuously exposed to A. suum, but mainly younger animals were infected. Deep litter appeared to be a less important source of A. suum eggs than previously believed compared to shallow litter. Long-term pasture rotation to eliminate pasture contamination was not possible, and control programs should therefore include thorough cleaning indoors and composting/long-term storage of bedding material and manure to inactivate eggs and reduce transmission to pigs.

First Steps in Initiating an Effective Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health Program in Urban Slums: the BRAC Manoshi Project's Experience with Community Engagement, Social Mapping, and Census Taking in Bangladesh.

The processes for implementing effective programs at scale in low-income countries have not been well-documented in the peer-reviewed literature. This article describes the initial steps taken by one such program--the BRAC Manoshi Project, which now reaches a population of 6.9 million. The project has achieved notable increases in facility births and reductions in maternal and neonatal mortality. The focus of the paper is on the initial steps--community engagement, social mapping, and census taking. Community engagement began with (1) engaging local leaders, (2) creating Maternal, Neonatal, and Child Health Committees for populations of approximately 10,000 people, (3) responding to advice from the community, (4) social mapping of the community, and (5) census taking. Social mapping involved community members working with BRAC staff to map all important physical features that affect how the community carries out its daily functions--such as alleys, lanes and roads, schools, mosques, markets, pharmacies, health facilities, latrine sites, and ponds. As the social mapping progressed, it became possible to conduct household censuses with maps identifying every household and listing family members by household. Again, this was a process of collaboration between BRAC staff and community members. Thus, social mapping and census taking were also instrumental for advancing community engagement. These three processes-community engagement, social mapping, and census taking--can be valuable strategies for strengthening health programs in urban slum settings of low-income countries.

Intestinal helminth infections among children of district Shopian of Kashmir Valley, India.

Intestinal helminth infections are amongst the most common infections worldwide. Studies in other districts of Kashmir Valley revealed a high prevalence of intestinal helminth infections among the children. The objectives of the current study were to determine the prevalence of intestinal helminth infections among children of Shopian district and to identify associated socio-demographic and environmental actors, behavioral habits and also related complaints. Stool samples were collected from 352 children and a questionnaire was filled for each case. The samples were processed using both simple smear and zinc sulphate concentration methods, and then microscopically examined for intestinal helminths. Of the 352 children surveyed, 75.28% had 1, or more, helminth parasites. Prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides was highest (71.8%), followed by Trichuris trichiura (26.4%), Enterobius vermicularis (13.9%) and Taenia saginata (5.3%). Conditions most frequently associated with infection included the age group, water source, boiled or unboiled water, defecation site, personal hygiene, and the extent of maternal education. The study shows a relatively high prevalence of intestinal helminths and suggests an imperative for the implementation of control measures.

Latrine behaviour as a multimodal communicatory signal station in wild lemurs: the case of Hapalemur meridionalis

Latrine behaviour is the repeated use of specific sites for defecation/urination, and is common among most mammals, including carnivores, herbivores, marsupials and rodents. While rare among primates, latrine use has been observed among some lemurs. It has been hypothesized that group-living primates may use latrines to maintain intergroup spacing (i.e. territorial defence) and for female advertisement of sexual condition. To test these, we conducted focal follows of three neighbouring southern bamboo lemur, Hapalemur meridionalis, groups in Mandena littoral forest of southeast Madagascar. From January to December 2013, we recorded all occurrences of latrine behaviour and characterized latrine sites to determine what factors influenced returning to specific latrines. Additionally, we attempted to elucidate the functional role of scent marking at latrines. We assessed the degree of home range overlap between neighbouring groups, and recorded intergroup aggression. Overall, latrines were almost exclusively visually conspicuous sites and located in the core areas of group home ranges. Best-fit models indicated that multiply visited latrines occurred more often in core areas, and were influenced by both sexes. Glandular scent marking at latrine sites was driven by males, and occurred more during the nonmating season. Males overmarked female scent-marks less often during the mating season and more often when younger males were likely to disperse. Thus, overmarking at latrine sites may function as a mate-guarding strategy to deter new males. Latrine use supports the energy frugality hypothesis, which proposes that lemur social systems, known for female social dominance and low rates of agonism, evolved as responses to the low productivity of Malagasy forests. The deposition of olfactory cues (i.e. faeces, urine, glandular secretions) at visually conspicuous sites may convey information to neighbouring conspecifics, thus reducing the need for intergroup agonism. Overall, latrine behaviour acts as a multimodal means of intergroup communication.

Shigella Infections in Household Contacts of Pediatric Shigellosis Patients in Rural Bangladesh.

To examine rates of Shigella infections in household contacts of pediatric shigellosis patients, we followed contacts and controls prospectively for 1 week after the index patient obtained care. Household contacts of patients were 44 times more likely to develop a Shigella infection than were control contacts (odds ratio 44.7, 95% CI 5.5–361.6); 29 (94%) household contacts of shigellosis patients were infected with the same species and serotype as the index patient’s. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis showed that 14 (88%) of 16 with infected contacts had strains that were indistinguishable from or closely related to the index patient’s strain. Latrine area fly counts were higher in patient households compared with control households, and 2 patient household water samples were positive for Shigella. We show high susceptibility of household contacts of shigellosis patients to Shigella infections and found environmental risk factors to be targeted in future interventions.

Plant diversity and composition associated with Himalayan musk deer latrine sites

Ungulate dung deposition may influence plant communities through seed dispersal or by animal disturbance and changes in soil nutrient levels on a small scale. The Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster uses common pellet defecation sites, often termed as “latrines”. In the present study, we aim to assess the plant species composition, density, richness and diversity of seedlings, saplings and trees, shrubs, graminoids and forbs associated with musk deer latrines. We sampled vegetation at latrine sites, associated adjacent sites (5–10 m from the latrines) and control sites (30 m from the latrine sites within the same vegetation cover) in order to compare plant species composition, density, richness and diversity of the latrine sites with those of adjacent sites and control sites. The diversity of graminoid species was higher at latrine sites, indicating that musk deer may disperse certain grass species and that latrine sites may be important microhabitats for some grasses. Generally, plant species densit...

Indirect effects of bioinvasions in Yellowstone Lake: The response of river otters to declines in native cutthroat trout

Nonnative species threaten ecosystems throughout the world — including protected reserves. In Yellowstone National Park, river otters Lontra canadensis depend on native cutthroat trout as prey. However, nonnative lake trout and whirling disease have significantly reduced the abundance of these native fish in the park's largest body of water, Yellowstone Lake. We studied the demographic and behavioral responses of otters to declining cutthroat trout on Yellowstone Lake and its tributaries. From 2002-2008, we monitored otter activity at latrine (scent-marking) sites, collected scat for prey identification, and used individual genotypes from scat and hair samples to evaluate survival and abundance with capture–recapture methods. Otter activity at latrines decreased with declines in cutthroat trout, and the prevalence of these fish in otter scat declined from 73% to 53%. Cutthroat trout numbers were the best predictor of temporal variation in apparent survival, and mean annual survival for otters was low (0.72). The density of otters in our study area (1 otter per 13.4km of shoreline) was also low, and evidence of a recent genetic bottleneck suggests that otter abundance might have declined prior to our study. River otters in and around Yellowstone Lake appear to be responding to reductions in cutthroat trout via changes in distribution, diet, and possibly survival and abundance. Our results provide a baseline estimate for monitoring the broader outcome of management efforts to conserve native cutthroat trout and emphasize the indirect ecosystem consequences of invasive species.

Communication stations: cameras reveal river otter (Lontra canadensis) behavior and activity patterns at latrines

Little is known about the behaviors river otters (Lontra canadensis) commonly exhibit when visiting latrine sites. By use of video data we constructed an ethogram to describe and quantify latrine behaviors. The most common behaviors were standing (20.5 %) and sniffing (18.6 %), lending support to the hypothesis that latrines are used for olfactory communication. Surprisingly, defecation was rarely observed (1.4 %); body rubbing occurred more than defecation (10.5 %). It is possible that, in addition to feces, urine, and anal jelly, river otters use body rubbing to scent mark. To monitor site use, we determined seasonal, monthly, and daily visitation rates and calculated visit duration. River otters most frequently visited the latrine in the winter (December and January) but the longest visits occurred in the fall. Very few visits were recorded during the summer. Latrines were most often visited at night, but nocturnal and diurnal visit durations were not different. River otters were more likely to visit the latrine and engage in a specific behavior rather than travel straight through the site. Our data supported the idea that river otters are primarily solitary mammals, with most latrine visits by single otters. However, we documented groups of up to 4 individuals using the area, and group visits lasted longer than solitary visits. Therefore, whether visits are solitary or social, latrine sites are likely to act as communication stations to transmit information between individuals.

Modeling Behavior by Coastal River Otter (Lontra Canadensis) in Response to Prey Availability in Prince William Sound, Alaska: A Spatially-Explicit Individual-Based Approach.

Effects of climate change on animal behavior and cascading ecosystem responses are rarely evaluated. In coastal Alaska, social river otters (Lontra Canadensis), largely males, cooperatively forage on schooling fish and use latrine sites to communicate group associations and dominance. Conversely, solitary otters, mainly females, feed on intertidal-demersal fish and display mutual avoidance via scent marking. This behavioral variability creates “hotspots” of nutrient deposition and affects plant productivity and diversity on the terrestrial landscape. Because the abundance of schooling pelagic fish is predicted to decline with climate change, we developed a spatially-explicit individual-based model (IBM) of otter behavior and tested six scenarios based on potential shifts to distribution patterns of schooling fish. Emergent patterns from the IBM closely mimicked observed otter behavior and landscape use in the absence of explicit rules of intraspecific attraction or repulsion. Model results were most sensitive to rules regarding spatial memory and activity state following an encounter with a fish school. With declining availability of schooling fish, the number of social groups and the time simulated otters spent in the company of conspecifics declined. Concurrently, model results suggested an elevation of defecation rate, a 25% increase in nitrogen transport to the terrestrial landscape, and significant changes to the spatial distribution of “hotspots” with declines in schooling fish availability. However, reductions in availability of schooling fish could lead to declines in otter density over time.

Communal latrines act as potentially important communication centers in ocelots Leopardus pardalis

In solitary carnivores, scent marking is an important form of communication among individuals. We examined the extent of potential communication among ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) at communal latrine sites at the population level. We used a combination of camera-trapping and noninvasive genetics to monitor 18 ocelot latrines in an isolated population on Barro Colorado Island in the Republic of Panama. We found that 72% of monitored ocelot latrines were used by multiple individuals of both sexes, with a mean of 3.0 individuals (range 1–9) per year using each latrine. One highly used latrine was visited by 17 different individuals including 11 males and 6 females over the course of 6 years. Based on visits to the same latrine within 10 days of one another, potential for scent communication among individuals was high. Males had the potential to communicate with a mean of 5.9 other individuals (range 2–14), and females had the potential to communicate with a mean of 4.5 other individuals (range 3–12) at latrines. We conclude that communal latrines are important centers of scent communication for Leopardus pardalis.

Dietary Patterns ofLontra canadensisin the Lower Snohomish River Estuary, Washington

Abstract The North American river otter, Lontra canadensis, is widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere but has become increasingly rare in some areas due to trapping, hunting, and environmental pollutants. Thorough research has been done on coastal and inland populations but relatively less research has been done on estuarine otter populations. This study investigated the dietary patterns in river otters in the Snohomish River Estuary in northern Washington between October 2012 and May 2013. Solitary otters were observed during 66% of recordings by a remote camera at the most sampled latrine site; however, groups as large as five were recorded on camera. Fecal analysis indicated crustacean, found in 76% of samples, as the primary food source for this population during the sampled time period and location. These data are from a limited observation and therefore preliminary, but demonstrate a need for more comprehensive research in this population of otters.

Differences in dung beetle activity at western gorilla defecation sites in south-east Cameroon: implications for establishment of Uapaca spp. seedlings

Abstract:For endozoochorous seed dispersal systems, the extant dung beetle assemblage at seed deposition sites may influence site suitability as burial activity may change the probability that seeds germinate and seedlings establish. This study tested if the different conditions of the two main seed-deposition habitats of a western lowland gorilla population of south-east Cameroon (sleeping sites and old secondary forest) influenced dung beetle assemblages and consequently the seed relocation patterns. In March 2012, in both habitats, burial patterns (proportion and depth) were described in eight stations based on two 300-g experimental faeces with known number of Uapaca spp. seeds (N = 75) left for 48 h, and beetle assemblages were described based on one 48h-dung-baited pitfall trapping session in five of these stations. To assess the impact of burial pattern on seedling emergence, Uapaca seedling emergence trials were performed in a nursery (75 seeds per depth treatment). Assemblage at sleeping sites had a higher species richness (non-significant) and was significantly more abundant than in old secondary forests. Conversely, significantly more seeds were buried in old secondary forests than sleeping sites and at significantly greater depths (mean: 14.9 cm vs. 8.7 cm). As trials suggested that burial depth ≥7 cm prevented Uapaca seedling emergence, dung beetles are assumed to induce seed loss more strongly in old secondary forests than sleeping sites (20.5% vs. 6.7% of initial seed crop). The demonstration that dung beetles may exert a negative influence on seed fate overall, and that the degree to which this occurs may vary depending on habitat, highlights the complexity in determining the suitability of deposition sites for recruitment.

Electricity pylons may be potential foci for the invasion of black cherry Prunus serotina in intensive farmland

Electricity pylons are used by birds for nesting platforms, song posts, roosting, perching and therefore as defecation sites. Consequently we predict that pylons may facilitate the dispersal of endozoochorous plants, such as black cherry Prunus serotina, an invasive species in Europe producing fruits that are often eaten by birds. To test the influence of electricity pylons on the abundance of P. serotina in farmland in western Poland we surveyed 124 areas under pylons and 124 paired control plots within fields under power lines. P. serotina occurred under 81.5% of the investigated pylons but only in 2.4% of the control plots. The vast majority of P. serotina plants occurred under pylons (99.9% of 5820 individuals) of which only 0.7% (42 individuals), found under 12 pylons, were fruiting. The few plants in control plots were all seedlings. The density of plants was related to landscape variables; the occurrence of P. serotina was higher when pylons were situated within arable crops, had a lower level of herb cover and were closer to human settlements. These results suggest that one approach to protect semi natural or even anthropogenic landscapes from exotic and invasive species is by encouraging permanent land use involving some form of annual disturbance, such as hay cutting or ploughing.

Reduction of Baylisascaris procyonis eggs in raccoon latrines, suburban Chicago, Illinois, USA.

Baylisascaris procyonis, a common roundworm of raccoons, causes severe or fatal human infections, often in suburban areas. To evaluate the effectiveness of a baiting strategy requiring minimal labor, we distributed medicated baits near raccoon latrines in suburban Chicago, Illinois, USA. This strategy lowered B. procyonis prevalence in raccoons, possibly reducing risk to humans.

Ecology of African Civet (<i>Civettictis civetta</i>) in Arba Minch Forest, Arba Minch, Ethiopia

The population density, diet and scent-marking of African civets ( Civettictis civetta ) were assessed at Arba Minch Forest within Nechi Sar National Park in Arba Minch, Ethiopia. The Civet population was estimated over a 5-months period to be 0. 27/ha, of which 0.16 were adults and 0.11 young. Civet diet was analyzed by examining 578 scats during the same period to determine preference of adult Civets to plant material over animal material and vice versa. This viverrid can be termed a generalist omnivore as per these findings. Civets were found to use plants, metallic objects and poles to mark scent. Out of the 92 scent marking sites observed, a vast majority were within 100 m radius of civetries or latrine sites. In the wild, the amount of civet – the perineal gland secretion collected from each marked site varied from 0.0047 g to 0.98 g, but in captivity 0.034 g to 2.0 g was collected. Much as Ethiopia is the world’s largest supplier of civet musk to perfumery industry in Europe, its Civet farming practices needs to be regulated for acceptable welfare standards. Keywords : African Civet Population Omnivorous generalists Scat analysis Scent marking

Can the mating system of the size-monomorphic Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) be inferred from its social structure, spacing behaviour and habitat? A case study from lowland Nepal

The mating system of small ungulates inhabiting dense habitats is poorly known. In a ca 12-km2 area in lowland Nepal, we captured most individuals (18 of 23) of the elusive, size-monomorphic Indian muntjac (< 20 kg) and monitored their spacing behaviour with radio telemetry, and their use of latrines by remote cameras. The sex ratio favoured females (61%). Measured by the 90% Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) method, male home ranges averaged 77 ha and those of females averaged 40 ha (P < 0.05); by the 90% Kernel method, range sizes were not different (P > 0.3). Although total home ranges and core areas overlapped both inter- and intrasexually, individuals were solitary. Temporally, males tended to avoid each other, whereas females were randomly distributed with respect to each other. A spatial attraction was detected between individuals of opposite sexes. Daily movement was longer among males than females (P < 0.01). Different individuals of both sexes – both adults and subadults – visited the same latrines, which were located in discrete and randomly distributed latrine areas, and the frequency of visiting latrines was similar among the two sexes. Animal spacing behaviour and distribution pattern suggested neither monogamy, nor strict resource or female defence polygyny. From the results, we hypothesize that muntjacs have evolved a form of polygynous mating system based on what might be termed an ‘inspection strategy’: males regularly inspecting the breeding status of adjacent females through extensive mutual scent and latrine markings, with dominating individuals presumably achieving most matings. This might be an optimal mating strategy for small, cryptically coloured ungulates living in rather stable and uniform environments, which breed asynchronously nearly twice a year.

Determinants of pika population density vs. occupancy in the Southern Rocky Mountains.

Species distributions are responding rapidly to global change. While correlative studies of local extinction have been vital to understanding the ecological impacts of global change, more mechanistic lines of inquiry are needed for enhanced forecasting. The current study assesses whether the predictors of local extinction also explain population density for a species apparently impacted by climate change. We tested a suite of climatic and habitat metrics as predictors of American pika (Ochotona princeps) relative population density in the Southern Rocky Mountains, USA. Population density was indexed as the density of pika latrine sites. Negative binomial regression and AICc showed that the best predictors of pika latrine density were patch area followed by two measures of vegetation quality: the diversity and relative cover of forbs. In contrast with previous studies of habitat occupancy in the Southern Rockies, climatic factors were not among the top predictors of latrine density. Populations may be buffered from decline and ultimately from extirpation at sites with high-quality vegetation. Conversely, populations at highest risk for declining density and extirpation are likely to be those in sites with poor-quality vegetation.

PATTERNS OF LATRINE USE BY RACCOONS (PROCYON LOTOR) AND IMPLICATION FOR BAYLISASCARIS PROCYONIS TRANSMISSION

Mammals often use latrine sites for defecation, yet little is known about patterns of latrine use in many common species such as raccoons (Procyon lotor). Because raccoon latrines are important foci for the transmission of raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis), documenting metrics of raccoon latrine use may have public health implications. Although some studies have provided evidence that multiple raccoons visit single latrine sites, exact latrine visitation patterns of raccoons have never been documented. We monitored raccoon latrine usage using proximity-logging collars placed at 15 latrine sites. We found that latrine sites were visited by multiple raccoons (range 1-7), and raccoons visited as many as six latrines during a 2-wk period. No sex differences were found in the number of latrines visited or time spent during visits. We posit that the use of multiple latrine sites by raccoons may lead to the pattern that rates of B. procyonis infection at latrines are greater than infection rates found in individual raccoon fecal samples. This in turn could lead to greater transmission of B. procyonis to paratenic hosts. Our results support the conclusion that raccoon latrines can be major foci for the infection and spread of B. procyonis.

Behavioural studies of faecal continence in the rat

A behavioural animal model of faecal continence and/or incontinence would be of value in experimental studies of the mechanisms by which sacral neuromodulation can effect continence mechanisms in humans. The aim of this behavioural study was to establish whether the rat, an obligate coprophagic species, exhibits patterns of faecal continence. Standard rat cages were modified to consist of a food and drink area, a nesting area and an empty latrine area. Three floor pressure pads were connected to hour meters to record the time spent in each area over the course of 4 days. The door to the latrine was open for 2 days and closed for another 2 days to create a physical barrier that could only be surmounted by climbing over a partition. In the first 2 days, most faecal pellets (74 ± 20 %; p < 0.0001) were deposited in the latrine and this was not changed by door closure (81 ± 13 %). Door closure had no effect per se on pellet output (p = 0.99), nor did it alter the place preference for defaecation (p = 0.17, two factor ANOVA). Rats spent less time in the latrine area accounting for 23 and 13 % of total time before and after the door was closed, respectively. Normal and infrared videography showed that the place preference for pellets was not due to pellet collection for coprophagic purposes. The rat demonstrates place preference for defaecation and may drop pellets to mark remote boundaries. This simple method may prove useful in future animal studies of neuropathic faecal incontinence and refinement of neuromodulation interventions that lack placebo effects.