Latitude Of Earth Research Articles

Quantifying Energy Balance Regimes in the Modern Climate, Their Link to Lapse Rate Regimes, and Their Response to Warming

Abstract Energy balance and lapse rate regimes qualitatively characterize the low, middle, and high latitudes of Earth’s modern climate. Currently we do not have a complete quantitative understanding of the spatiotemporal structure of energy balance regimes [e.g., radiative convective equilibrium (RCE) and radiative advective equilibrium (RAE)] and their connection to lapse rate regimes (moist adiabat and surface inversion). Here we use the vertically integrated moist static energy budget to define a nondimensional number that quantifies where and when RCE and RAE are approximately satisfied in Earth’s modern climate. We find RCE exists year-round in the tropics and in the northern midlatitudes during summertime. RAE exists year-round over Antarctica and in the Arctic with the exception of early summer. We show that lapse rates in RCE and RAE are consistent with moist adiabatic and surface inversion lapse rates, respectively. We use idealized models (energy balance and aquaplanet) to test the following hypotheses: 1) RCE occurs during midlatitude summer for land-like (small heat capacity) surface conditions, and 2) sea ice is necessary for the existence of annual-mean RAE over a polar ocean, such as the Arctic. Consistent with point 1, an aquaplanet configured with a shallow mixed layer transitions to RCE in the midlatitudes during summertime whereas it does not for a deep mixed layer. Furthermore, we confirm point 2 using mechanism-denial aquaplanet experiments with and without thermodynamic sea ice. Finally, we show energy balance regimes of the modern climate provide a useful guide to the vertical structure of the warming response in the annual mean, and seasonally over the tropics and the southern high latitudes.

On the association of predominant polarity of North-South component of IMF in the GSE system near 1 AU with solar polar magnetic fields during 1967–2020

The skewness of the monthly distribution of GSE latitudinal angles of Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) observed near the Earth (Sk) is found to show anti-correlation with sunspot activity during the solar cycles 20–24. Sk can be considered as a measure of the predominant polarity of north-south component of IMF (Bz component) in the GSE system near 1 AU. Sk variations follow the magnitude of solar polar magnetic fields in general and polarity of south polar fields in particular during the years 1967–2020. Predominant polarity of Sk is found to be independent of the heliographic latitude of Earth. Sk basically reflects the variations of the solar dipolar magnetic field during a sunspot cycle. It is also found that IMF sector polarity variation is not a good indicator of the magnitude changes in solar polar magnetic fields during a sunspot cycle. This is possibly due to the influence of non-dipolar components of the solar magnetic field and the associated north-south asymmetries in the heliospheric current sheet.

JYOTPATTI

<p>Bhaskaracharya ,(Bhaskar II, 1114- 1185 AD), was one of the great mathematicians in India. His text “<em>Sindhant Shiromani</em>” (SS) was treated as the base of the further research oriented results by most of all the mathematicians after him.<br> SS contains of two parts:, <em>Goladhyaya and Grahaganit</em>. Jyotpatti is the last chapter in <em>Goladhyaya. Jyotpatti</em> consists of 25 <em>Shloka</em> (stanzas), all in Sanskrit language. It is a general impression that SS contains <em>Lilavat</em>i and <em>Beejganit</em> also, but that is not so.<br> <em>Jyotpatti</em> deals with trigonometry. This was a milestone in developing geometry in India. <em>Jya</em> means sine and <em>Utapatti</em> means creation. Hence the name <em>Jyotpatti ( jya + upapatti</em>). <em>Jya and Kojya( or kotijya)</em> stand for the Rsine and Rcosine ratios respectively. The trigonometry developed by Bhaskara II is based on a circle of radius R, and not on a right-angled triangle as taught in the schools.<br> After defining <em>Jya, Kotijya and Utkrama</em> (<em>verse jya) </em>etc, Bhaskara obtains these ratios for the standards angles of 30,45, 60, 36 and 28,(all in degrees) by inscribing a regular polygon in a circle of radius R. Bhaskara called these angles as <em>Panchajyaka. </em>Not only this, Bhaskara developed these results for addition and subtraction of two angles. This result was further developed for the similar results, for the multiple angles. Bhaskara compares <em>jya and kotijya</em> with the longitude –latitude of earth and those with lateral threads of a cloth.<br> Contents in Jyotpatti (Only a few mentioned here)<br> (1) R jya 45 =R, and other similar R jya values. (All in degrees)<br> (2) R jya 36 = 0.5878 approx.<br> (3) Sn = side of a regular polygon of n sides = D sin (π/n), D is the diameter of circle in which polygon is inscribed.<br> (4) Derivation of formulae for sin (θ + ϕ) and cosine (θ + ϕ) called as <em>samas bhavana</em> and <em>antar bhavana</em>.<br> (5) Concept of derivatives, that is, δ(sin θ) = (cos θ) δθ etc. Which is Rolle’s Theorem.<br> Indian mathematicians developed trigonometry in different way than that of western mathematicians. Though <em>Jyotpatti</em> is a small text, it is a landmark in development of ancient and medieval trigonometry.</p>

Forcing Seasonality of Influenza-like Epidemics with Daily Solar Resonance.

SummarySeasonality of acute viral respiratory diseases is a well-known and yet not fully understood phenomenon. Several models have been proposed to explain the regularity of yearly recurring outbreaks and the phase differences observed at different latitudes on the Earth. Such models consider known internal causes, primarily the periodic emergence of new virus variants that evade the host immune response. Yet, this alone is generally unable to explain the regularity of recurrences and the observed phase differences.Here we show that seasonality of viral respiratory diseases, as well as its distribution with latitude on the Earth, can be fully explained by the virucidal properties of UV-B and UV-A solar photons through a daily, minute-scale, resonant forcing mechanism. Such an induced periodicity can last, virtually unperturbed, from tens to hundreds of cycles, and even in the presence of internal dynamics (host's loss of immunity) much slower than seasonal will, on a long period, generate seasonal oscillations.

Magnetic circular dichroism in Archean atmosphere and asymmetric photolysis of biomolecules: enantiomeric excess of prebiotic sugar.

In the terrestrial dipolar magnetic field, magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) of UV sunlight by paramagnetic O2 in an Archean atmosphere (mostly CO2 and N2) results in circular polarization anisotropy (~ 10-10). This is used to calculate enantiomeric excess (EE~10-13) of glyceraldehyde (3-carbon sugar) with a model that includes racemic production and asymmetric photolysis of its enantiomers. The sign and magnitude of enantiomeric excess (EE) vary with the Earth's latitude. Unlike random noise fluctuation in spontaneous mirror symmetry breaking (SMSB) models, the sign of EE is deterministic and constant over large areas of prebiotic Earth. The magnitude is several orders greater than the mean amplitude of stochastically fluctuating EE. MCD could provide the initial EE for growth of homochirality by asymmetric autocatalysis.

Geodynamically consistent inferences on the uniform sampling of Earth's paleomagnetic inclinations

Paleomagnetism is a key method to reconstruct the Earth's paleogeography and thus essential for understanding tectonic evolution, but it assumes that the Earth's magnetic field structure has always averaged to a geocentric axial dipole (GAD). The GAD hypothesis may be tested using the observed inclination frequency distribution, but only if continents sampled all of the Earth's latitudes uniformly, which is not known. Here, we provide new insight into the uniform sampling problem by employing a suite of 3D spherical mantle convection models that feature the self-consistent evolution of mantle convection, plate tectonics and continental drift over timescales of 2 Gyr or more. Our results suggest that continents unlikely sampled latitudes uniformly during the Phanerozoic, consistent with previous suggestions. This finding is robust for a variety of geodynamic evolutions with different mantle and lithosphere structures, at least in the absence of true polar wander. For longer sampling durations, uniform sampling typically becomes more feasible, but may only be achieved with confidence after time scales of minimum 1.3 Gyr. This time scale depends on the structure of the mantle and lithosphere and may be shortest when upper mantle viscosity is small such that reduced resistive drag at the cratonic base allows for faster continental drift. Weak plates (low plastic yield strength) promote more dispersed continent configurations, which tends to facilitate uniform sampling. If these conditions are not met, the uniform sampling time scale can easily exceed several billion years. Even the minimum estimate of 1.3 Gyr challenges the validity of using the Phanerozoic inclination frequency distribution to infer the past average magnetic field structure; the approach could however still be applicable using the Precambrian inclination record.

Research on the Evolution of Aquatic Vegetation in Wuliangsuhai Wetland of Inner Mongolia, China

In this paper, we selected the largest lakes wetlands Wuliangsuhai which in the same latitude of earth as study object. The TM satellite imagery of 2001 and 2010 was the data source. By Sensor calibrating and geometric precision correcting of information preprocessing, I analysis of different bands, spectral values, normalized difference vegetation index NDVI and water index NDWI characteristics on the basis of the establishment of the decision tree, classify information, and extract Wuliangsuhai aquatic vegetation information. This research has got a good extraction aquatic vegetation results of lakes and wetlands; the classification accuracy was 91.92% and 88.31% respectively. The results showed that wetland submerged plants area of 2010 in Wuliangsuhai lakes shrank by 67.81 % compared to 2001, and the water surface area of lake increased by 60.67%. These reflect that the eutrophication get a degree of control in Wuliangsuhai lakes wetland.

Effects of Orbit and Pointing Geometry of a Spaceborne Formation for Monostatic-Bistatic Radargrammetry on Terrain Elevation Measurement Accuracy

During the last decade a methodology for the reconstruction of surface relief by Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) measurements – SAR interferometry – has become a standard. Different techniques developed before, such as stereo-radargrammetry, have been experienced from space only in very limiting geometries and time series, and, hence, branded as less accurate. However, novel formation flying configurations achievable by modern spacecraft allow fulfillment of SAR missions able to produce pairs of monostatic-bistatic images gathered simultaneously, with programmed looking angles. Hence it is possible to achieve large antenna separations, adequate for exploiting to the utmost the stereoscopic effect, and to make negligible time decorrelation, a strong liming factor for repeat-pass stereo-radargrammetric techniques. This paper reports on design of a monostatic-bistatic mission, in terms of orbit and pointing geometry, and taking into account present generation SAR and technology for accurate relative navigation. Performances of different methods for monostatic-bistatic stereo-radargrammetry are then evaluated, showing the possibility to determine the local surface relief with a metric accuracy over a wide range of Earth latitudes.

A small satellite constellation for continuous coverage of mid-low earth latitudes

When located on a geostationary orbit, a satellite keeps a steady position with respect to a generic point on the Earth’s surface and this characteristic allows for important advantages. A continuous longitudinal coverage of the Earth’s surface (higher latitudes excluded) is a result of using a three geo-satellite constellation. Nevertheless, there are also several drawbacks related to the geostationary orbit employment. The need to consider alternative satellite constellations has begun to arise from these disadvantages; these constellations, in spite of having very similar characteristics to the geostationary system, are able to overcome the complexity, the costs and the launching site problems connected with a geostationary satellite. For equatorial orbits, the Four-Leaf Clover System represents a profitable alternative compared to the traditional geostationary system. As far as high Earth latitudes are concerned, there are different operational constellations, such as Molniya and Tundra, capable of ensuring the continuous coverage of a region and generally taking orbits with a critical inclination into account (63.43 deg). The aim of this paper is to demonstrate that it is possible to create a satellite constellation capable of ensuring a continuous coverage of mid-low Earth latitudes. After a general study of the orbits employed to date, followed by a general graphical representation, a constellation of eight small satellites in multi-synchronous orbits makes the achievement of this paper’s aim possible. Several possibilities for application follow, both for telecommunications and remote sensing missions.

Variations in the directions of north‐south component of IMF in the GSE System near Earth and Parker's Model

The monthly probability of occurence of southward IMF events in the GSE system in association with IMF sectors of away and toward polarity is shown to exhibit an annual variation following the heliographic latitude of earth if the IMF orientations are inferred to be in agreement with the Parker's model. Using this new idea we can infer deviations of IMF north‐south (Bz components) orientations observed near eath from that predicted by Parker's model of the solar wind. Analysis of relevant earth‐orbiting satellite observations of the interplanetary medium during the period 1973–80 does not reveal any systematic sunspot cycle and solar wind speed dependence for the inferred deviaitons of IMF from the Paker's model. However IMF north‐south orientations for the year 1974, a period of recurrent high speed solar wind stream activity, show a significant departure from the Parker's model.

On the cause of observed solar wind velocity variation around hale type sector boundary

The concept of positive gradient in solar wind velocity with respect to the heliomagnetic latitude and the change in heliomagnetic latitude of Earth has been utilized to explain the differences in solar wind velocity variation around − and −/+ IMF sector boundaries in northern and southern heliolatitudes. It is shown that, using a sinusoidal symmetric heliospheric current sheet, one can explain the observed solar wind changes around the Hale and non-Hale types of sector boundaries.

Coronal holes, solar wind streams, and geomagnetic disturbances during 1978 and 1979

We have extended our long-term study of coronal holes, solar wind streams, and geomagnetic disturbances through the rising phase of sunspot cycle 21 into the era of sunspot maximum. During 1978 and 1979, coronal holes reflected the influence of differential rotation, and existed within a slowly-evolving large-scale pattern despite the relatively high level of sunspot activity. The long-lived 28.5-day pattern is not produced by a rigidly-rotating quasi-stationary structure on the Sun, but seems to be produced by a non-stationary migratory process associated with solar differential rotation. The association between coronal holes and solar wind speed enhancements at Earth continues to depend on the latitude of the holes (relative to the heliographic latitude of Earth), but even the best associations since 1976 have speeds of only 500–600 km s-1 rather than the values of 600–700 km s-1 that usually occurred during the declining phase of sunspot cycle 20.

Study of Cancer Mortality by Grid Square Method

The grid square method as used in Japan has been standardized by the government, by use of the lines of the earth's latitude and longitude. The basic unit covers an area of approximately one square kilometer. An evaluation of this method is focused on the geographical distribution of cancer mortality in the city of Tokyo over a period of six years. The results indicated that for stomach and lung cancers, there was a very clear geographical distribution. High stomach cancer areas were similar for both males and females, and by comparing data with census data, it was evident that the blue-collar areas showed high mortality. High lung cancer areas were also similar for both males and females, but the distribution was opposite to that of stomach cancer, i.e., the higher mortality was observed in white-collar areas. Because the basic area unit of one square kilometer was too small for statistical analysis of geographical distribution, the moving average of nine grid squares as well as a "combined grid square method" based on population density was used. By this study a number of advantages of the grid square method as opposed to methods employing existing government boundaries became evident. The boundary lines do not move with political expediencies. X-Y coordinates can be easily defined for statistical analyses by computer, facilitating computer mapping, calculating the center of distribution, determination of the contour lines, and the estimation of values in places which lie between sampling stations.

Study of cancer mortality by grid square method.

The grid square method as used in Japan has been standardized by the government, by use of the lines of the earth's latitude and longitude. The basic unit covers an area of approximately one square kilometer. An evaluation of this method is focused on the geographical distribution of cancer mortality in the city of Tokyo over a period of six years. The results indicated that for stomach and lung cancers, there was a very clear geographical distribution. High stomach cancer areas were similar for both males and females, and by comparing data with census data, it was evident that the blue-collar areas showed high mortality. High lung cancer areas were also similar for both males and females, but the distribution was opposite to that of stomach cancer, i.e., the higher mortality was observed in white-collar areas. Because the basic area unit of one square kilometer was too small for statistical analysis of geographical distribution, the moving average of nine grid squares as well as a "combined grid square method" based on population density was used. By this study a number of advantages of the grid square method as opposed to methods employing existing government boundaries became evident. The boundary lines do not move with political expediencies. X-Y coordinates can be easily defined for statistical analyses by computer, facilitating computer mapping, calculating the center of distribution, determination of the contour lines, and the estimation of values in places which lie between sampling stations.

CONSERVATION OF AUSTRALIA'S ARID LAND IN RELATION TO CONTINUING EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS

Continental areas in the lower-mid earth latitudes are primarily arid. Where the areas are also topographically depressed, conditions are, or often have been, conducive to sedimentation favouring coal or hydrocarbon generation. Such land areas are now primarily loci of sand or gibber deserts or semideserts where drought incidence, temperature ranges and windiness tend to be extreme. Vegetation tends to be minimal and often ephemeral. Salinas and evaporitic deposits may be extensive. Rock outcrops may be deeply weathered and mineral gossans spectacular. Mountains and inselbergs comprise the arid range province, often with relict faunas and floras.Life in the arid interior is often highly specialised and well adapted to the harsh conditions. Many plants and animals have adaptive mechanisms that are little understood or studied. They represent an invaluable gene pool for physiological investigation.Heightened interest in Australian deserts and arid mountains through mining and petroleum exploration and tourism, has highlighted the special problems of these areas. The need for cautious progression, changing attitudes and modified field techniques is now widely recognised.In the absence of over population, or over efficient new predators or grazing animals, Australian deserts are remarkably regenerative. Disused tracks tend to be rapidly obliterated and providing rubbish is deeply buried and pits are filled in, signs of earlier occupation disappear quite rapidly. However, as population pressure, exploration effort and tourist traffic inevitably intensify, an added awareness of new ecological dangers is essential to avoid or minimise damage -particularly by fire (spinifex or mulga forests), introduction of alien animal species, the undisciplined use of terrain vehicles, or clearing activities.In mining areas, as in tourist centres, damage to vegetation by human pollution, soil erosion, or the activities of introduced animals such as goats, cats and dogs may present serious problems. Abandonment or collapse of flowing artesian water wells is a particular problem in central Australia, although such localities commonly become centres of bird concentration and dispersal.Mining and exploration companies and tourist organisations generally have a particular responsibility to reduce the impact of their operations on the delicately balanced desert environment. Alternative, less destructive methods of extracting minerals in the shallow subcrop also need to be developed wherever possible, and the costs will have to be passed on to the consumer. The mere declaration of large areas of the Australian inland as national parks or other protected areas is not enough unless adequate policing is also provided. Vermin, such as goats, rabbits, cats, foxes, dingoes and others still provide a major potential menace in any such closed off areas. At least in "marginal" pastoral areas the responsible pastoralist must be encouraged in protecting this environment, and compensated accordingly rather than relying solely on visiting wardens "foreign" to these areas.

數理日射學について(II)

The explanation of tables and figures.Tables 1 to 6 contain the necessary coefficients for the computation of insolation by the method of expansion for any long period and the results of computation by this method for summer half, winter half and total year. By such method as explained in Part I etc. we have obtained the daily amount as shown in tables 7 and 8, and the half and total yearly as shown in tables 9 and 10. There exists a satisfactory coincidence between both methods concerning the half and total year.Tables 7 and 8 are shown graphically in Figs. 1-6, in relation to the longitude of the sun, taking the earth's latitude as parameter. These are the annual variations of the amounts. Tables 9-10 are shown in Figs. 7-10 in relation to the latitude. Results concerning to planes are here omitted because they shall be given in the next paper on the insolation on the inclined plane.

Sunspots and telegraphy

Beyond the facts that they recur in welldefined cycles and that they affect certain of the earth's latitudes more than others, little but theoretical knowledge exists about the nature of sunspots and the sometimes concomitant magnetic storms. However, almost inadvertently, modern telegraph systems are being immunized against them by such innovations as carrier currents and radio relay systems which avoid the effects of earthcurrent disturbances.