Latin Square Research Articles

PSDCLS: Parallel simultaneous diffusion–confusion image cryptosystem based on Latin square

Today, due to the unparalleled growth of multimedia data sharing, especially digital images, between users over insecure channels in real-time applications, cryptography algorithms have gained increasing attention for the secure and efficient transmission. In classical chaos-based image cryptosystems, the confusion and diffusion operations are often applied as two separate and independent phases, which threatens the cryptosystem security. To address these problems, in this paper, a fast image cryptosystem based on parallel simultaneous diffusion–confusion strategy has been proposed using Latin squares, called PSDCLS. It consists of three main steps. First, the initial parameters of the Hénon-Sine chaotic map are produced from SHA256 of both the plain image content and the user’s secret key. Second, a chaos-based random Latin square is constructed by employing the chaotic sequence produced through the Hénon-Sine chaotic map. Third, a parallel simultaneous diffusion–confusion scheme is proposed by using Latin square and vectorization technique to overcome the problems of computational complexity and high risk of separable and iterative confusion–diffusion operations in the classical chaos-based image cryptosystems. To analyze and evaluate the security and performance of PSDCLS cryptosystem, we conducted extensive simulations and experiments on various benchmark images. Experimental results and analyses show that PSDCLS achieves excellent scores for information entropy (>7.99), correlation coefficients close to 0, key space (2512), NPCR (>99.60%), UACI (>33.46%). The encryption time for test images of size 512 × 512 and 512×512×3 was around 0.026 and 0.081 s, respectively. Therefore, PSDCLS is highly robust against common cryptographic attacks and serves as a swift cryptosystem for real-time encryption applications. The source code of PSDCLS is accessible at: https://github.com/EbrahimZarei64/PSDCLS.

Effect of double-premilking teat disinfection protocols on bacterial counts on teat skin of cows and milker gloves in a free-stall-housed dairy herd.

This research communication addresses the hypothesis that double premilking teat disinfection (DD) is more effective in reducing soiling and bacterial count on the cows' teat skin and milkers' gloves than conventional disinfection (CONV). The design was a 3 × 3 Latin square (three groups of cows and three treatments) with conventional teat disinfection (CONV, lactic acid application after forestripping), double teat disinfection using the same disinfectant (DD1D, lactic acid application before and after forestripping), and double teat disinfection using two different disinfectants (DD2D, application of lactic acid before and chlorine-based disinfectant after forestripping). All groups were assigned for six days for each treatment, and the evaluations and samples were collected on the last day, before and after treatment. We evaluated the teat cleanliness score (TCS), count of Gram-negative bacteria (coliforms and noncoliforms), Staphylococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and total bacterial count (TBC) on the cows' teats and TBC on the milkers' gloves. TCS after premilking was lower in DD than CONV treatment. The reduction of Staphylococcus spp. count was greater in the DD treatment and tended to be higher in the DD2D. The TBC reduction on the cows' teats was greater in the DD treatments. The TBC on the milkers' gloves was lower for DD before and after premilking. In conclusion, DD can be an alternative for reducing some bacterial populations on cow teats and preventing the transmission of microorganisms between cows via the milkers' hands.

Effects of dietary fiber and biotic supplementation on apparent total tract macronutrient digestibility and the fecal characteristics, metabolites, and microbiota of healthy adult dogs.

Dietary fibers and biotics have been shown to support gastrointestinal health in dogs, but are usually tested individually. There is value in testing fiber-biotic combinations that are commonly used commercially. Therefore, this study was conducted to determine the apparent total tract macronutrient digestibility (ATTD) of diets supplemented with fibers or biotics and to evaluate their effects on the fecal characteristics, metabolites, microbiota, and immunoglobulin A (IgA) concentrations of dogs. Twelve healthy adult female beagle dogs (age= 6.2 ± 1.6 yr; body weight = 9.5 ± 1.1kg) were used in a replicated 3 x 3 Latin square design to test three treatments: 1) control diet based on rice, chicken meal, tapioca starch, and cellulose + a placebo treat (CT); 2) diet based on rice, chicken meal, garbanzo beans, and cellulose + a placebo treat (GB); 3) diet based on rice, chicken meal, garbanzo beans, and a functional fiber/prebiotic blend + a probiotic-containing treat (GBPP). In each 28-day period, a 22-day diet adaptation was followed by a 5-day fecal collection phase. Fasted blood samples were collected on day 28. Data were analyzed using the Mixed Models procedure of SAS 9.4, with P<0.05 being significant and P<0.10 being trends. ATTD of dry matter, organic matter, and energy were lower (P<0.001) and DM fecal output was higher (P<0.01) in dogs fed GBPP than CT or GB, whereas ATTD of crude protein was higher (P<0.001) in dogs fed CT and GBPP than GB. ATTD of fat was higher (P<0.001) and wet fecal output was lower (P<0.01) in dogs fed CT than GB or GBPP. Fecal DM% was higher (P<0.001) in dogs fed CT than GBPP or GB, and higher in dogs fed GBPP than GB. Fecal short-chain fatty acid concentrations were higher (P<0.001) in dogs fed GB than CT or GBPP, and higher in dogs fed GB than GBPP. Fecal IgA concentrations were higher (P<0.01) in dogs fed GB than CT. Fecal microbiota populations were affected by diet, with alpha diversity being higher (P<0.01) in dogs fed GB than CT, and beta diversity shifting following dietary fiber and biotic supplementation. The relative abundance of 24 bacterial genera were altered in dogs fed GB or GBPP than CT. Serum triglyceride concentrations were lower in dogs fed GB than GBPP or CT. Our results demonstrate that legume-based dietary fibers, with or without prebiotics and probiotics, reduce ATTD, increase stool output, beneficially shift fecal metabolites and microbiota, and reduce blood lipids of adult dogs.

Economic Aspects of Zinc Oxide Fertilization in Yam (Dioscorea alata L.) in a Semi-Arid Region of Brazil

The management and improvement of yam productivity are associated with a good supply of essential nutrients for the growth and development of the crop that has economic viability. This research aimed to evaluate the economic feasibility of foliar fertilization with Zintrac® in two yam agricultural seasons (2022/2023 and 2023/2024). Therefore, two experiments were conducted at the Rafael Fernandes Experimental Farm, Mossoró, RN, Brazil. The experimental design was in a Latin square design with five treatments of doses of Zintrac® (0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 L ha−1) and five replications. Among the production costs of yams, labor and seed acquisition were the most significant. The highest profitability index was achieved with the dose of 1L Zintrac® ha−1 in the first season and second season, which corresponded to 78.97 and 57.86%. For the first season, increments were observed in all treatments that received zinc doses with increases of 48.70, 31.22, 14.30, and 15.93% for 1, 2, 3, and 4 L of Zintrac® ha−1 compared to the dose of 0 L ha−1. On the other hand, in the second season, there was an increase only in the dose of 1 L ha−1 of Zintrac®, which corresponded to 51.3% in the net yield (ha−1) of the dose of 0 L ha−1. Therefore, foliar zinc oxide fertilization was economically viable for the yam crop, obtaining higher economic indices at the dose of 1 L ha−1. The highest cost for growing yams is using a dose of 4 L ha−1 of Zintrac®, totaling USD 6977.59 (first season) and USD 6868.33 (second season)

Effects of winged bean tuber (WBT) modified starches substituted for cassava chip in concentrate diets on rumen fermentation, nutrient utilization, and blood metabolites in Thai native beef cattle.

This study examined the effects of substituting winged bean tuber steam (WBTS) modified starches for cassava chips (CSC) in the concentrate diet on rumen fermentation, nutrient utilization, and blood metabolites in Thai-native beef cattle. Four Thai-native bulls were assigned randomly as a 4 × 4 Latin square design, which represents the amount of CSC replaced with WBTS in the concentrate mixture diets at 0, 10, 20, and 30%. Increasing levels of WBTS replacement for CSC in the concentrate diets had a quadratic effect on total dry matter (DM) intake (p<0.05). Replacement of WBTS at 20% and 30% for CSC did not alter total DM intake compared to 0% WBTS, whereas 10% WBTS replacement could significantly increase total DM intake by 0.41 kg DM/day compared to the control group. In addition, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) digestibility showed a quadratic increase (p < 0.05) when CSC was substituted at various levels of WBTS in the concentrate diet (p < 0.05). Replacement of CSC with WBTS at 10% and 20% showed higher NDF digestibility when compared to 0% replacement. There was a quadratic increase in blood glucose at 4 h post-feeding, and the average blood glucose value was significantly lower (p < 0.01) when substituting CSC with WBTS. Substituting WBTS for CSC at 10% in the concentrate diet showed the highest blood glucose concentration when compared to other treatments. Replacing CSC with WBTS at 10% and 20% shows a higher concentration of C3 than those of other treatments (0% or 30%). The nitrogen (N) intake (NI) increased linearly (p<0.05) when substituting WBTS for CSC at all levels in the diet. Additionally, N retention (NR) and the ratio of N retention to N intake increased (p<0.05) when substituting WBTS for CSC at 10%, 20%, and 30% compared to 0%. The gross energy intake (GEI), digestible energy intake (DEI), and energy efficiency (DEI/GEI) were quadratically increased when substituted with various levels of WBTS for CSC in the concentrate diet. The findings indicate that substituting 10% of CSC in the concentrate diet with WBTS may be sufficient as an alternative feed resource for improving nutrient utilization and metabolic efficiency in beef cattle diets.

Ration particle size has different effects on digestive but not production parameters in higher-yielding (Holstein) compared to lower-yielding (Girolando) cows.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of total mixed ration particle size (length) and breed of cow on intake dynamics, animal performance and CH4 emissions, comparing high yielding Holstein and low yielding Girolando cows. The experimental design was 2 × 2 Latin Square arranged as a crossover factorial scheme with two diets (short particle size, SPS and long particle size, LPS) and the two breed compositions. The design comprised two periods of 26 d each, where all data collection was performed at cow level. No influence of the particle size occurred for the passage rate, neutral detergent fiber digestibility, performance and milk composition, methane emissions or ruminal fermentation parameters. Girolando cows had greater dry matter intake (DMI) when fed SPS, while Holsteins had the same (P < 0.05). Girolando cows had lower dry matter digestibility when fed LPS compared to SPS, while Holsteins had the opposite effect (P < 0.05). Also, the digestibility of crude protein and non-fibrous carbohydrates decreased in Girolando cows fed LPS, but not in Holsteins (P < 0.05). Girolando cows reduced DMI by 10.6% when fed LPS diet (P < 0.05). Girolando had an increased eating rate (+24 g of DM/min; P < 0.05) compared to Holstein cows, but Holstein cows had a lower CH4 intensity (by 29.7%: P < 0.05). Girolando cows increased the dry matter intake when fed a diet with short particle size, while the same did not happen in Holsteins. Dry matter digestibility increased in Holsteins when fed long particle size, while the opposite was observed in Girolando cows. Nutrient digestibility was reduced in Girolando cows when fed short particle size. Particle size did not influence eating time, eating rate, feed trough visits, visits with intake, milk yield and composition regardless of the breed. Reducing particle size increased CH4 intensity in both breeds.

154 Reduction of particle size of field peas increases net energy and digestibility of starch when fed to growing pigs

Abstract Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that particle size of field peas and location of production may affect the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of starch, the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA), and net energy (NE). One source of peas from the U.S., and two sources from Canada were procured. The U.S. peas were ground to 265, 457, or 678 µm, whereas the two Canadian peas were ground to 411 and 415 µm, respectively. A basal diet containing corn and soybean meal as the sources of energy, starch, and AA, and five diets containing corn and soybean meal and 50% of each source of peas were formulated. Pigs were fed the same diets in Exp. 1 and 2, but an N-free diet was also used in Exp. 1. In Exp. 1, barrows [n = 7; initial body weight (BW) = 60.6 kg; SD = 2.1] that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum were allotted to a 7 × 7 Latin square design with seven diets and seven periods. Ileal digesta were collected and analyzed for Cr and AA. In Exp. 2, pigs (n = 24; initial BW = 30.8 kg; SD = 1.0) were used in a 6 × 6 Latin square design with six calorimetry chambers and six periods. To determine NE, feces and urine were quantitatively collected and O2 consumption and CO2 and CH4 productions were measured. In both Exp. 1 and 2, the statistical model included diet as the main effect and pairwise comparisons were used to separate the means. Contrast coefficients were also used to determine linear effects of particle size within the U.S. peas. Results from Exp. 1 indicated that the SID of AA was not influenced by the origin of the peas or by particle size, except that the SID of Arg was linearly (P = 0.042) increased (Table 1) as particle size of U.S. field peas was reduced. The AID of starch in the U.S. peas ground to 265 µm was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than in the two Canadian sources, and the AID of starch and NE in diets were linearly (P &amp;lt; 0.001) increased as particle size was reduced. The NE in U.S. peas ground to 678 µm was less (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than in all other pea samples. In conclusion, AID of starch, SID of AA, and NE did not differ between field peas grown in Canada and peas grown in the U.S., but reducing the particle size of field peas resulted in improved digestibility of starch and energy by pigs.

88 Ruminal degradation profiles of dry matter, organic matter, and crude protein of finishing diets with different levels of inclusion of dried distiller’s grains plus solubles and soybean meal

Abstract The objective of this study was to estimate the ruminal degradation profile of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), and crude protein (CP) in concentrate-based diets with different levels of inclusion of dried distiller’s grains plus solubles (DDGS) and soybean meal (SBM). Red Angus steers [n = 4; body weight (BW) = 360 ± 9 kg] with ruminal, duodenal, and ileal cannulas, were used in a 4 × 4 latin square. Diets (TMR) consisted of dry-rolled corn (70%), hay (10%), liquid supplement (5%), and test ingredients (15%). Treatments were (DM basis): 1) 15.0% DDGS (CON); SBM in replacement of 50% of DDGS (SBM50); SBM in replacement of 75% of DDGS (SBM75), and SBM in replacement of 100% of DDGS (SBM100). Each period lasted 18-d, consisting of a 7-d diet adaptation followed by an 11-d collection period. An in situ ruminal incubation of each TMR was performed from d 8 to 11 of each period. Ingredients were weighed separately, maintaining their proportion in the TMR. Air-dried TMR sample (6 g, 2 mm grind) was ruminally incubated in a nylon bag (Ankom, 10 × 20 cm) using the same steer from the in vivo study. Samples were incubated for 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24, 48, and 72 h. The number of bags varied as a function of the incubation time to guarantee enough residual samples after incubation, where more bags per sample were incubated for the longer incubation times relative to the shorter incubation times (72 and 48 h, n = 5; 24 h, n = 4; 16 h, n = 3; 8 h and 4 h, n = 2; 2 h and 0 h, n = 1). DM, OM, and CP degradation were estimated by using the following model: Yt = a + b × (1 − e(−kd × t)), The NLIN procedure of SAS 9.4 was used and restricted and full models were compared by a likelihood ratio test. Rumen degradable protein (RDP) of each TMR was calculated as follows: RDP = a + b + [kd/(kd + kp)], where kp was 0.05 h−1). There were no differences (P ≥ 0.47) on the fractions a, b, and kd, or RDP (55%) between treatments for DM, OM, and CP. According to our analysis, approximately 13 h of incubation is necessary to accurately estimate the RDP content of the TMR. The NASEM (2016) adopts 35 and 75% of RDP for DDGS and SBM, respectively, based on fixed incubation time of 16 h. Most studies have evaluated degradation profiles of individual feed and not TMR; however, animals are fed complete diets, made up by feedstuff that vary in physical characteristics, nutrient composition, and consequently RDP. In this study, the similar degradation profiles between diets suggest that RDP of complete diets differs from that of individually assayed ingredients.

PSII-17 Effect of protease supplementation on amino acids digestibility of soybean meal fed to growing pigs of different ages

Abstract Protease supplementation can increase amino acids (AA) availability; however, the effectiveness of protease in swine diets varies and has been associated with the type and dose of protease, dietary ingredients, and potentially animal age. This study investigated the interactive effect of protease inclusion level and pig age on standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of protein (CP) and AA of soybean meal (SBM) fed to growing pigs. A corn starch–based diet was formulated with SBM as the sole source of AA and containing titanium as an indigestible marker. Protease was supplemented at 0, 15,000; 30,000 and 45,000 NFP/kg of feed (ProAct 360). An N-free diet was used to estimate basal ileal endogenous AA losses. Ten cannulated pigs (body weight = 21 kg ± 2 kg) were assigned to experimental diets in a duplicate 5 × 5 Latin square design. In Phase I (23 to 30 kg-pigs, 90 ± 17 d of age), ileal digesta was collected in 5 periods of 7 d (5 d adaptation and 2 d ileal digesta collection). In Phase II (50 to 65 kg-pigs. 140 ± 17 d of age), using the same diets, ileal digesta was collected in 5 more periods of 7 d. Pigs were fed at 4% of body weight (BW) adjusted at the end of each period. Diets and ileal digesta were analyzed for CP, AA, and titanium and SID was calculated. Orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to determine the linear and quadratic effects of protease supplementation. The combined data were analyzed as 4 x 2 factorial, including the fixed effects of protease inclusion (excluding N-free diet), age, and their interactions. In phase I, increasing levels of protease resulted in linear improved (P &amp;lt; 0.1) of SID for the majority of indispensable AA (Except Arg, His, Met + Cys, and Trp) and the average of dispensable AA. In phase II, the SID of Ile, Leu, Met, Met + Cys, Val, the average of indispensable AA, and the majority of dispensable AA was quadratically improved. Overall (Phase I and II), the SID of Ile, Leu, Met + Cys, Val, Cys, Glu, Tyr, and the average of dispensable AA was quadratically improved (P &amp;lt; 0.1). In most cases, the supplementation of 30,000 NFP/kg of feed resulted in the greatest AA digestibility improvements. However, the linear response in the first phase for some AA suggests that diets for younger pigs could be supplemented with a greater level (45,000 NFP/kg of feed). There were no interactions between protease levels and age. Younger pigs had improved (P &amp;lt; 0.1) SID of CP and most AA (Except Cys, Gly, and Ser). In conclusion, dietary protease supplementation can improve SID of AA in soybean mean independent of pig age. Pigs age can influence AA digestibility where younger pigs have greater AA digestibility.

80 Substitution of dried distiller’s grains with soybean meal on beef cattle diets: Effects on ruminal ammonia and volatile fatty acid concentrations

Abstract The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of substitution of dried distiller grains with soybean meal on beef cattle diets in ruminal ammonia and volatile fatty acid (VFA) concentrations. Red Angus steers [n = 4; body weight (BW) = 360 ± 9 kg] with ruminal, duodenal, and ileal cannulas, were used in a 4 × 4 latin square. Diets (TMR) consisted of dry-rolled corn (70%), hay (10%), liquid supplement (5%), and test ingredients (15%). Treatments were [dry matter (DM) basis]: 1) 15.0% DDGS (CON); SBM in replacement of 50% of DDGS (SBM50); SBM in replacement of 75% of DDGS (SBM75), and SBM in replacement of 100% of DDGS (SBM100). Each period lasted 18-d, consisting of a 7-d diet adaptation followed by an 11-d collection period. Rumen fluid was collected at -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 h post-feeding on d 16. Ruminal digesta was strained through two layers of cheesecloth and two 10-mL aliquots of ruminal fluid were collected and stored at −20°C until further analysis of ammonia and VFA concentrations. Data were analyzed as repeated measures using the MIXED procedure of SAS with treatment, sampling time, and their interaction as fixed effects, and animal and period as random effects. No treatment by day interactions (P ≥ 0.84) were observed for ammonia or VFA. Ammonia concentrations were greater (P ≤ 0.01) for SBM75 compared with SBM100 and CON, with intermediate values observed for SBM50 (Table 1). Moreover, ammonia was greater (P ≤ 0.01) at 0h compared with 6, 8, and 12h post-feeding. Acetate was greater (P ≤ 0.01) for SBM75 and SBM100 compared with CON and SBM50. Concentrations of propionate were greatest (P ≤ 0.01) for SBM100 and least for CON, with SBM50 and SBM75 being intermediate. Further, propionate was greater (P ≤ 0.01) at 16h compared with 0 and 2 h post-feeding, with all other times being intermediate. Isobutyrate was less (P ≤ 0.01) for CON than all other treatments, and greater concentrations (P ≤ 0.01) were observed at -2 compared with 14 and 16 h post-feeding. Butyrate was greatest (P ≤ 0.01) in SBM75, followed by CON and SBM50; SBM50 was similar to SBM100. Butyrate concentrations were similar -2 and 0 h post feeding, which were less (P ≤ 0.01) than all other times. Isovalerate was greater (P ≤ 0.01) for CON than SBM50 and SBM75, and similar to SBM100. Valerate was greatest (P ≤ 0.01) for SBM75 and SBM100 followed by SBM 50 and CON which had the least valerate value. Overall, our results show that SBM75 resulted in greater concentrations of ammonia, acetate, propionate, butyrate, isobutyrate, and valerate compared with CON. These data suggest that 75% substitution of DDGS with SBM has the potential to optimize microbial fermentation. To complement these results, we are currently evaluating rumen protein degradation profiles and amino acid flow to small intestine.

155 Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids in soybean meal, fermented soybean meal, and soy protein concentrate fed to nursery pigs

Abstract Accurate information of amino acid (AA) digestibility in protein supplements is critical in formulating diets for nursery pigs. Soybean products are widely used in nursery pig diets due to the high crude protein (CP) concentrations. The objective of the present study was to determine the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of AA in soybean meal, 3 sources of fermented SBM (FSBM), and soy protein concentrate (SPC) fed to nursery pigs. Ten barrows with an initial body weight of 10.5 kg (standard deviation = 0.9) were surgically fitted with T-cannulas at the distal ileum. The animals were assigned to a replicated 5 × 5 Latin square design with 10 animals, 5 experimental diets, and 5 periods to obtain 10 observations per diet. Five diets were prepared to contain SBM (48.5% CP), 3 sources of FSBM (A, B, and C; 52.6% CP, 55.1% CP, and 49.8% CP, respectively), or SPC (58.4% CP) as the sole source of AA. Each period consisted of 4 d of adaptation period and 3 d of ileal digesta collection period. The values of basal endogenous losses of AA reported in the literature were used to calculate the SID of AA by correcting the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) values. Additionally, a 2-step in vitro procedure modified for nursery pigs was conducted to determine the in vitro ileal disappearance of CP in the 5 ingredients. The AID of all indispensable AA except His and Lys in FSBM-A and FSBM-B was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that in SBM, whereas AID values for all AA except Trp in SPC did not differ from the values in SBM. The SID of Leu and Trp in FSBM-A and FSBM-B was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that in SBM or SPC. The SID of all AA in SPC was not different from that in SBM. In vitro ileal disappearance of CP in 3 sources of FSBM was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.001) than that in SBM or SPC. In conclusion, in vitro ileal disappearance of protein was greater in fermented soybean meal compared with soybean meal or soy protein concentrate whereas the standardized ileal digestibility of most amino acids was comparable among the soybean-derived ingredients.

Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids and metabolizable energy in three sources of high-protein corn distillers dried grains fed to weanling pigs

Two experiments were conducted to test the null hypothesis that there are no differences in the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) and metabolizable energy (ME) among three sources of high-protein distillers dried grains (HP-DDG) fed to weanling pigs. The three sources included an experimental HP-DDG product and two commercial HP-DDG products (i.e., HP-DDG 40 and HP-DDG 50) that were fed to weanling pigs. In experiment 1, eight barrows (initial body weight: 11.09 kg) were allotted to one of four diets using a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with four diets and four periods of seven days in each square. A nitrogen-free diet and three diets containing each source of HP-DDG as the sole source of AA were prepared. Results indicated that values for the SID of Lys in the experimental HP-DDG; HP-DDG 50, and HP-DDG 40 were 0.524, 0.638, and 0.642, respectively. The SID of most AA in the experimental HP-DDG was less (P < 0.05) than in the other sources of HP-DDG, but no differences were observed between HP-DDG 40 and HP-DDG 50. In experiment 2, thirty-two weanling pigs (initial body weight: 18.0 kg) were randomly allotted to one of four diets. A corn diet was formulated to contain corn as the sole source of energy and three additional diets contained corn and each source of HP-DDG. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and feces and urine were collected separately for four days after five days of adaptation. Digestible energy (DE) and ME in the three sources of HP-DDG were calculated by difference. Results from experiment 2 indicated that the apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE) in the corn diet was greater (P < 0.05) than in the diets containing the experimental HP-DDG or HP-DDG 40, and the ATTD of GE in the diets containing the experimental HP-DDG or HP-DDG 50 was greater (P < 0.05) than in the diet containing HP-DDG 40. On a dry matter basis, ME in the experimental HP-DDG, HP-DDG 40, and HP-DDG 50 were 17.05, 16.72, and 18.23 MJ/kg, respectively, with the ME of HP-DDG 50 being greater (P < 0.05) than in HP-DDG 40, but not different from the ME in the experimental HP-DDG. In conclusion, the SID of most AA in HP-DDG 40 and HP-DDG 50 was greater than in the experimental HP-DDG. The DE and ME in HP-DDG 50 was greater than in HP-DDG 40, but DE and ME in HP-DDG 40 were not different from DE and ME in the experimental HP-DDG.

PSII-13 Effects of benzoic acid, bromelain, adipic acid, and humic substance supplementation on nitrogen balance, urine pH, slurry pH, and manure odorous compounds in pigs

Abstract The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of benzoic acid, bromelain, adipic acid, and humic substance supplementation on nitrogen balance, urinary pH, slurry pH, and manure odorous compounds in pigs. Fifteen barrows with an initial body weight of 37.9 kg (standard deviation = 4.1) were individually housed in metabolism crates. The animals were allocated to a triplicated 5 × 2 incomplete Latin square design with 15 animals, 5 experimental diets, and 2 periods. The basal diet mainly consisted of corn, soybean meal, and rapeseed meal. Four experimental diets were prepared by supplementing each additive at a concentration of 10 g/kg at the expense of corn starch to the basal diet. Each period consisted of a 4-d adaptation period and a 24-h collection period for slurry, followed by a 4-d collection period for feces and urine. On d 5, feces and urine were collected for 24 h, and the feces and urine were mixed in a ratio of fecal weight to urine weight at the end of the collection to obtain slurry samples. The fecal nitrogen (N) output was greatest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in pigs fed the diet supplemented with humic substances. The apparent total tract digestibility of N in pigs fed the humic substance diet was less (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than other groups. The urinary pH in pigs fed the adipic acid diet was less (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that in other groups except the benzoic acid group. The slurry pH tended to differ among the treatment groups (P = 0.074) with the least value in pigs fed the adipic acid diet. The concentrations of indole in slurry (P = 0.084) and isovalerate in feces (P = 0.062) tended to differ among the groups with the least values in the pigs fed the humic substance diet. In conclusion, benzoic acid supplemented has the potential to increase N utilization in pigs, and adipic acid supplemented to pig diets can decrease urinary pH and slurry pH. Although benzoic acid and adipic acid have limited effects in reducing odorous compounds, humic substances have potential to reduce some odorous compounds.

153 Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids and concentration of metabolizable energy in three sources of corn protein fed to weanling pigs

Abstract Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA), apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), and concentrations of digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) are not different among three sources of corn protein (i.e., new corn protein, ANDVantage 50Y, ANDVantage 40Y) when fed to weanling pigs. In Exp. 1, ileal-cannulated barrows [n = 8; initial body weight (BW) = 11.09 kg; SD = 0.46] were fed an N-free diet or three diets containing each corn protein as the sole source of AA. Pigs were allotted to a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design with 4 diets and 4 periods of 7 d in each square. Ileal digesta were collected for 2 d and the SID of AA was calculated. In Exp. 2, weanling pigs (n = 32; initial BW = 18.0 kg; SD = 1.21) were fed a corn-based basal diet or three diets containing corn and each source of corn protein. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and feces and urine were quantitatively collected for 5 d after 7 d of adaptation. Concentrations of DE and ME in all diets were calculated and DE and ME in the three sources of corn protein were calculated by difference. Data from both experiments were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS with pig as the experimental unit. In Exp. 1, the statistical model included diet as the fixed effect and square, pig, and period as random effects. In Exp. 2, the model included ingredient as the fixed effect. Results from Exp. 1 demonstrated that the SID of all indispensable AA except Arg and His in ANDVantage 40Y and ANDVantage 50Y were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) compared with the new corn protein, but no differences were observed between ANDVantage 50Y and ANDVantage 40Y (Table 1). Results from Exp. 2 indicated that on a dry matter basis, concentration of DE in ANDVantage 50Y was greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than in ANDVantage 40Y, the new corn protein, and corn, but ME in ANDVantage 50Y was not different from the ME in the new corn protein (Table 2). Concentration of ME in the new corn protein was not different from ME in corn, ANDVantage 40Y, or ANDVantage 50Y. In conclusion, the new source of corn protein had concentrations of AA that were not different from ANDVantage 50 Y, but this new corn protein had decreased digestibility of AA compared with other corn proteins. The new corn protein also had less DE compared with ANDVantage 50Y, but ME in the new corn protein was not different from corn, ANDVantage 40Y, or ANDVantage 50Y.

PSV-2 Digestible indispensable amino acid scores (DIAAS) in pork products

Abstract The “Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score” (DIAAS) method measures protein quality in human foods. However, values for DIAAS are not available for some pork products. Therefore, this study aimed to determine DIAAS values for nine pork products. Nine diets contained one pork product (i.e., back ribs, shoulder butt, tenderloin, Coppa ham, prosciutto ham, speck ham, chorizo, Italian sausage, and bratwurst) as the only source of crude protein (CP) and amino acids (AA). Nine ileal cannulated gilts with an initial average body weight of 50.3 ± 3.8 kg were used in a 9 × 6 incomplete Latin square with 9 diets and six 7-d periods. Ileal digesta were collected on d 6 and 7 of each period. There were, therefore, six replicate pigs per diet, but no pig was fed the same diet twice. A nitrogen-free diet was used to measure basal endogenous losses of CP and AA, and this diet was fed to all pigs in one separate 7-d period. The standardized ileal digestibility (SID) and DIAAS of each pork product were calculated. Reference ratios were used for children from 6 mo to 3 yr old and individuals older than 3 yr. Data were analyzed by ANOVA using the MIXED procedure of SAS with pig as the experimental unit. Diet was the fixed effect and replicate pig was the random effect. Results indicated that for both age groups, prosciutto ham had greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) DIAAS than all other pork products (Table 1), which may be because prosciutto is from the hind leg of the pig, which contains less connective tissue. Prosciutto was also not smoked, which may contribute to the greater DIAAS values for this protein because smoking may reduce DIAAS. For children from 6 mo to 3 yr old, tenderloin, Coppa ham, and Italian sausage had greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) DIAAS than chorizo and bratwurst sausages, back ribs, and shoulder butt. However, for individuals older than 3 yr, Coppa ham had greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) DIAAS than all other pork cuts and sausages. The observation that back ribs and shoulder butt had decreased DIAAS than tenderloin is likely because tender cuts with less connective tissues tend to have greater concentrations of indispensable AA with less non-nitrogen content. In addition, for both age groups, there was no limiting AA for all pork products, except that chorizo sausage was limiting in sulfur AA for children from 6 mo to 3 yr old. In conclusion, data from this experiment demonstrated that all pork products have “good” or “excellent” protein quality for individuals older than 6 mo of age, indicating that these food ingredients may be used to complement lower-quality proteins and provide a meal with all indispensable AA.

160 Awardee Talk: Impact of indigestible protein on coccidiosis and meat and bone meal autoclaving time-related reduction in amino acid digestibility for broiler chickens and growing pigs

Abstract Meat and bone meal (MBM) is a byproduct of the processing of livestock in the rendering industry. Because of its highly digestible protein and balanced amino acid profile, MBM is a valuable protein source in swine and poultry diets. Rendering may reduce amino acid digestibility of MBM because of heat damage to MBM, and the effect of heat damage on amino acid digestibility in MBM may be different between broiler chickens and growing pigs. For this reason, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of autoclaving on standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acid in MBM fed to broiler chickens and growing pigs. Meat and bone meal from the same batch was autoclaved at 134°C for 0, 30, 60, 90, 120, 150, or 180 min, generating 7 samples. Eight experimental diets consisted of 7 diets containing each MBM sample as a sole source of nitrogen and a nitrogen-free diet. In Exp. 1, male broiler chickens [n = 656; initial body weight (BW) = 777 ± 69 g] at d 18 post hatching were assigned to the 8 diets in a randomized complete block design with BW as a blocking factor. On d 23, birds were euthanized by CO2 asphyxiation and dissected for the collection of ileal digesta. In Exp. 2, barrows (n = 16; initial BW = 25.7 ± 1.0 kg) surgically fitted with T-cannulas at the distal ileum were allotted to duplicate 8 × 4 incomplete Latin square design with the 8 diets and 4 periods. Each experimental period consisted of 5-d adaptation and 2-d ileal digesta collection periods. Data for Exp. 1 and 2 were pooled as a 2 × 7 factorial treatment arrangement with the effects of species (i.e., broiler chickens or pigs) and autoclaving time (i.e., 0 to 180 min). The basal endogenous losses of most AA in growing pigs were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) compared with broiler chickens. The SID of nitrogen and tryptophan in MBM linearly decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in both species with increasing autoclaving time. An interaction between species and quadratic effect of autoclaving time was observed (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in SID of arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, and valine in MBM. Specifically, the SID of lysine both linearly and quadratically decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in broiler chickens (85.0 to 56.0%), whereas the SID of lysine only linearly decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in growing pigs (79.5 to 46.7%) as autoclaving time increased. In conclusion, given the species differences in amino acid digestibility response to the severity of heat damage, target species should be considered when using amino acid digestibility value of MBM in diet formulation.

36 Effects of grinding method on ileal digestibility of amino acids in different short-season corn cultivars fed to growing pigs

Abstract Decreased corn production was previously observed in Manitoba due to the low climatic temperatures; however, corn production has increased by developing corn hybrids that require low corn heat units, and therefore can grow in areas with decreased heat units. Milling technology affects feed particle size and shape, which may affect the digestibility of nutrients and growth performance of pigs. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effects of grinding methods on the apparent (AID) and standardized (SID) ileal digestibility of amino acids (AA) in selected short-season corn cultivars fed to growing pigs. A total of 18 ileal cannulated barrows (56.8 ± 2.9 kg) were assigned to 1 of 6 dietary treatments in a triplicate 6 × 2 incomplete Latin square design with 6 diets and 2 periods to give 6 observations per treatment. Dietary treatments were arranged in a 3 × 2 factorial design with three different corn cultivars [two Manitoba-origin short-season corns (A or B) or a US-origin corn] and two grinding methods [hammer mill or roller mill]. Each ingredient was included as the sole source of protein in the diets. All diets contained 0.3% titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker. Each experimental period lasted 7 d including the first 5 d for adaptation and the last 2 d for ileal digesta collection. After feeding the experimental diets, all pigs were fed a low-protein diet for 7 d to quantify endogenous losses of N and AA for determining the SID of N and AA. Pigs were fed the diets at 2.8 times the maintenance energy requirement based on their body weight at the beginning of each period. Data were analyzed using the PROC MIXED of SAS. The statistical model included diet as fixed effect and replication, animal within replication, and period within replication as random effects. The AID of Arg, Ala, Ser, and Gly were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in short-season corn B compared with US-origin corn. The AID and SID of His in both short-season corns were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than in US-origin corn. The AID of His and SID of Thr in hammer-milled corns were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than in roller-milled corns. A significant interaction was found whereby AID of Ile in hammer-milled corn was not different between short-season corn B cultivar and US-origin corn but in roller-milled corn, short-season corn B cultivar had a greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) digestibility than US corn. In conclusion, the digestibility of AA was greater in short-season corn than in US corn, and pigs had greater digestibility of AA in hammer-milled corn than roller-milled corn.

PSI-13 Digestible and metabolizable energy concentrations in soybean meal, fermented soybean meal, and soy protein concentrate fed to nursery pigs

Abstract Accurate information of energy concentrations in protein supplements is critical in formulating diets for nursery pigs. Soybean products are widely used in nursery pig diets due to the high crude protein (CP) concentrations. The objective of the present study was to determine the digestible (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) in soybean meal (SBM, 48.5% CP), 3 sources of fermented SBM (FSBM-A, FSBM-B, and FSBM-C; 52.6% CP, 55.1% CP, and 49.8% CP, respectively), and soy protein concentrate (SPC, 58.4% CP) fed to nursery pigs. Twelve barrows with an initial body weight of 8.7 kg (standard deviation = 0.5) were individually housed in metabolism crates. A replicated 6 × 4 incomplete Latin square design with 12 animals, 6 experimental diets, and 4 periods was employed. A basal diet contained 96.9% corn as the sole source of energy. The experimental diets were prepared by replacing the basal diet with SBM at 31%, FSBM-A at 27%, FSBM-B at 26%, FSBM-C at 29%, and SPC at 24%. Each period consisted of a 4-d adaptation period and a 4-d collection period. The marker-to-marker procedure was used for the quantitative collection of feces. Urine was collected for 96 h. The difference procedure was employed to calculate the DE and ME values of the soybean ingredients. Additionally, a 3-step in vitro assay was conducted to determine in vitro total tract disappearance of nutrients in the ingredients. The DE concentrations in FSBM-A (4,171 kcal/kg as-fed), FSBM-B (4,111 kcal/kg as-fed), FSBM-C (4,027 kcal/kg as-fed) and SPC (3,999 kcal/kg as-fed) were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that in SBM (3,724 kcal/kg as-fed). The ME concentrations in FSBM-A (3,883 kcal/kg as-fed) and FSBM-B (3,841 kcal/kg as-fed) were greater (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that in SBM (3,528 kcal/kg as-fed) but did not differ from those in FSBM-C (3,728 kcal/kg as-fed) or SPC (3,767 kcal/kg as-fed). The DE:gross energy (GE) was greatest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in FSBM-B but lowest (P &amp;lt; 0.05) in SBM with intermediate ratios for other 3 ingredients whereas the ME:GE and ME:DE were not different among the 5 ingredients. The in vitro total tract disappearance of dry matter and organic matter in SPC was less (P &amp;lt; 0.05) than that in other ingredients. In conclusion, fermented soybean meal and soy protein concentrate contain greater energy concentrations compared with soybean meal.

PSV-9 Effects of increasing amounts of high-oleic or conventional soybeans in diets fed to mid-lactation dairy cows on measures of dry matter intake and lactation

Abstract The objective of the study was to determine effects of increasing amounts of conventional (CONV) or high-oleic (HO) soybean in diets fed to mid-lactation dairy cows on dry matter intake (DMI) and performance. Rumen and duodenally cannulated cows (n = 8) were split into two groups and placed in a split-plot design. The whole plot factor was type of soybean (CONV vs. HO) and was provided to cows in a crossover arrangement so that each cow was provided both types of soybeans throughout the experiment. The subplot factor was amount of soybeans (0, 4, 8, 12%). Each group of cows receiving the same type of soybean were placed in a 4 x 4 Latin square with treatment sequences balanced for carryover effects. Diets were formulated to contain 18.5% crude protein and to slightly exceed requirements for ruminally degradable protein. Additions of soybeans replaced soybean meal and soybean hulls so that diets provided similar amounts of soy-based protein and fiber. During the last 4 d of each 14-d period, spot samples of feed, orts, and milk were collected together with measures of milk production and feed intake. Data were analyzed using the MIXED procedure of SAS. There were no interactions of soybean type and amount on lactation or DMI except for measures of milkfat, milk energy concentration and milkfat yield. Increasing amounts of HO resulted in a quadratic response in milkfat and energy concentration together with measures of milkfat yield. Specifically, these measures were greater (P ≤ 0.02) when cows were fed diets containing 4 and 8% HO compared with diets containing 0 or 12% HO; increasing amounts of CONV had no impact (P ≥ 0.32) on milkfat and energy concentration or milkfat yield. Measures of milk yield were not affected by type or amount of soybean (P ≥ 0.54), but measures of energy corrected milk yield (ECM) tended to respond differently to increasing amounts of soybean from either CONV or HO (P = 0.07). Interestingly, ECM responded quadratically (P = 0.02) to increasing amounts of HO but not to increasing amounts of CONV (P ≥ 0.58). Overall, however, ECM tended (P = 0.06) to be slightly greater with HO compared with CONV (42.5 vs. 41.1 kg/d). Yet, DMI was also greater (P ≤ 0.01) with HO compared with CONV (26.6 vs. 24.4 kg/d). Differences in DMI, therefore, resulted in a tendency (P = 0.07) for greater efficiency of ECM production when cows were fed CONV vs. HO. Overall, treatments had no effect on measures of milk protein, urea-nitrogen, solids-not-fat or lactose concentrations or yields. These data seem to indicate that performance responses among lactating cows to increasing amounts of HO are dynamic but that responses to CONV are not.

PSII-12 Dose-dependent effects of supplemental benzoic acid on nitrogen balance, urinary pH, slurry pH, and manure odorous compounds in pigs

Abstract The objective of this study was to determine the effects of supplemental benzoic acid (BA) at 0.5% to 2.5% in diets on nitrogen (N) utilization, urinary pH, slurry pH, and manure odorous compounds in pigs. Fifteen barrows with an initial body weight of 56.2 kg (standard deviation = 2.6) were individually housed in metabolism crates. The animals were allocated to a replicated 6 × 4 incomplete Latin square design with 12 animals, 6 experimental diets, and 4 periods, resulting in 8 observations per dietary treatment. The basal diet mainly consisted of corn, soybean meal, and rapeseed meal. Benzoic acid was supplemented to the basal diet at 0.0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, or 2.5% BA at the expense of corn starch. Each period consisted of a 4-d adaptation period and a 24-h collection period for slurry followed by a 4-d collection period for feces and urine. On d 5, feces and urine were collected for 24 h, and the feces and urine were mixed in a ratio of fecal weight to urine weight at the end of the collection to obtain slurry samples. The apparent total tract digestibility of N tended to linearly increase (P = 0.071) and the daily digested N linearly increased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) with increasing BA supplementation. In contrast, the urinary N output and retained N were not affected by inclusion of BA. The urinary and slurry pH were quadratically decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) with increasing BA supplementation. In the fecal samples, the concentrations of acetate, propionate, butyrate, and skatole linearly decreased (P &amp;lt; 0.05) and isovalerate concentration tended to linearly decrease (P = 0.099) by supplemental BA. In the slurry samples, the concentrations of isovalerate and skatole decrease linearly (P &amp;lt; 0.05), and butyrate concentration tended to linearly decrease (P = 0.054) by supplemental BA. In conclusion, supplemental benzoic acid has the potential to improve the N digestibility in a dose-dependent manner for pigs. In addition, increasing benzoic acid supplementation decreased urinary pH, slurry pH, and concentrations of some odorous compounds in pig feces and slurry.