Latin Cross Research Articles

Symbolization and appresentational orders in lifeworldly meaning constitution

Abstract This analysis focuses on the role of appresentational orders in the “building of the lifeworld.” Based in phenomenology and the philosophy of culture, the article contributes to semiotics by further developing some of Göran Sonesson’s ideas on signs. Appresentation means that “absent” data is intended as co-present with a directly perceivable term within the unity of consciousness (Husserl). Alfred Schutz sees “marks,” “indications,” and “signs” as different types of couplings between “present” and “absent” data according to one single cognitive style or “subworld.” These appresentational relations contrast with the more complex “symbols,” which are couplings between different styles or subworlds. For instance, a crucifix may co-present a “Latin cross” given to everyday perception with meanings belonging to the world of religion, making it “symbolically pregnant” (Cassirer). Beyond a mere coupling, appresentation is constituted by appresentational orders, which can reflect high relational complexity. Although Schutz introduced the concept of these orders, he, like Sonesson, misses their full potential for understanding appresentation. Signs and sign-like relations (such as marks and indications), which make possible (life)worldly communication, spatial and temporal orientation, and social organization, can be further differentiated according to the appresentational orders “dominant” in each certain case. In contrast, symbols, which ensure an experience of the lifeworld as a whole (Voegelin), that connect subworlds such as religion, science, dreams, etc., are rather to be characterized by a relevance “annihilation” between appresentational orders.

Acoustics in Baroque Catholic Church Spaces

After the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the Catholic Church undertook a profound renovation, which affected the spatial configuration of the churches to adjust to the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. The acoustic cultural heritage in these spaces have been studied by different researchers, proposing the joint analysis of 66 Catholic churches from the Baroque period. This study delves into the global characterisation of the sample and establishes correlations between geometric and acoustic parameters. From the acoustic analysis, it is clear that the central floor typology, as opposed to Latin cross churches, presents better average values of musical clarity in relation to their volume. The analysis of the relationship between acoustic and geometric parameters, when the sample of churches is discriminated by typology, allows for the establishment of appropriate correlations for Latin cross floor plans, single naves and basilicas, but not when the analysis is carried out for the entire sample. These correlations are a tool that allows us to evaluate acoustic parameters not measured in situ in Catholic churches of the Baroque period in a predictive way as a function of other measured acoustic or geometric parameters.

The Gamewatcher’s Cottage in Birkham Wood: Rediscovering a Lost History

In 2023 an investigation was carried out to try and establish the origins of an enigmatic stone ruin in Birkham Wood, near Knaresborough, which had, in the early twentieth century, been converted into a cottage for a Harewood estate gamekeeper and his family. Although the structure is not formally recognised as being of historic interest, its extant west end corner buttresses, each adorned with an inscribed Latin cross, suggested otherwise. Locally, the ruin has been regarded as having medieval monastic associations. However, research and excavation now suggest that the building probably represents an example of John Carr’s Gothic revival work, as part of his work on the nearby Plompton Hall estate in c.1760. As well as providing a new perspective on the likely origin of the building, the project has provided some insights into a rarely documented subsistence lifestyle in the first half of the twentieth century.

Symbols of Faith in the Mosaic Floors of the Newly Discovered Ecclesiastical Complex at Ashdod Maritima, Israel

An ecclesiastical complex has recently been discovered in Ashdod Maritima – ancient Azotus. The site was excavated in 2019 and 2021. The complex includes a basilica, several rooms, and a chapel on the north side, all decorated with mosaic pavements. A mixed trend comes to light in the mosaics: on the one hand, there is a continuation of the geometric and vegetal compositions and motifs that originated in the Roman world and continued into the Byzantine period. On the other hand, the complex is unique in the many symbols of faith that appear, scattered throughout its parts. All types of crosses are depicted; a medallion with a Greek cross accompanied by the Greek letters iota-chi, and alpha and omega; a medallion with a Latin cross standing on Golgotha Hill with the Greek letters iota-chi and alpha and omega; a large Latin cross standing on Golgotha Hill with two large Greek crosses between its arms; and a medallion with a quote from Psalms. The complex is exceptional in the large number of crosses, the names of the bishops, priest, deacon, and deaconesses who were involved in the construction and decoration or were buried in the complex, and the large number of dated inscriptions.

Research on the Evolution of the Architectural Style of Catholic Church in Europe from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance

Architects and artists in the Renaissance believed that Gothic architecture was a symbol of Christian theocracy, while ancient Greek and Roman architecture was non Christian. With the impact of humanism and Protestantism on Catholicism during the Renaissance and Reformation, the architectural style of the Catholic Church changed dramatically. From 1500 to 1700, the style of the church also changed from the original Gothic style and the Latin cross to the Greek cross, and even integrated the Baroque style. From the perspective of the time axis, this paper mainly adopts the method of literature analysis, combined with the social background, the evolution of artistic style and other factors, trying to explain and analyze the changes in the architectural style of the Catholic Church during this period. After analyzing the historical trend of Catholicism and the literature at that time, it is not difficult to find that the pursuit of humanism in the Renaissance, the change in the style of the mainstream of art, and the anti-Renaissance movement directly affected the change in the style of the Catholic Church, becoming more secular and popular; this change also reflected the spirit of Florence and other places where the Renaissance originated at that time.

Day-VII Architecture: A Catalogue of Polish Churches post 1945

Day-VII Architecture: A Catalogue of Polish Churches post 1945

The Garden Atonement and the Mormon Cross Taboo

The Garden Atonement and the Mormon Cross Taboo

Візантійські традиції дизайну пластичних мистецтв у збереженні національної ідентифікації лемків-русинів в Галичині (друга половина ХІХ – перша третина ХХ століття)

Northern Lemkovyna has been developing traditional plastic arts in the Byzantine style for a very long time. This type of art is one of the talismans that have preserved the national identity of the Lemko-Rusins through the centuries. This paper investigates the specificity of the Byzantine style in the Lemko stonemasonry, which is primarily the drawing of the iconography of memorial forms: the position of the hands and feet of the crucified Jesus Christ as in the Christian tradition of the Eastern rite, a three-armed cross, Cyrillic inscriptions, and so on. This clearly emphasizes the nationality of the memorials surrounded by Polish works of the Roman Catholic rite, with Latin, not Rusin inscriptions, more elongated Latin cross, iconography of Jesus according to the Roman Catholic tradition, etc. Despite centuries of repression, the Lemko Rusins have managed to preserve their national and religious identity in the vicinity of non-ethnic elements by observing Byzantine traditions in the plastic arts and religious cult. The flourishing development of plastic arts, in particular, artistic stonemasonry, in the second half of the 19th - first third of the 20th century can be considered a component of the national Rusin Renaissance, which has not yet been properly investigated by historians. In further research, other cases of Lemko-Rusin plastic arts can be investigated, eg. icon painting, embroidery, and so on.

Mauric from Apahida (MAURICIUS ≈ MAURICUS)

"Based on scattered finds, besides the well‑known Ist (1889) and IInd (1968/1969) “princely” graves in Apahida (Romania, Cluj County), dated to the Gepidic age (5–6 centuries AD) (Pl. I), there must have been a IIIrd princely grave there. Apart from these scattered finds, a sealring with a monogram (symbolum), found in Apahida – and kept in the Hungarian National Museum – (Pl. II/1–3) refers to the same. The retrograde monogram on the ring indicates that the sealring was not only a personal jewel, but also a functional tool used for authentication. Although the ring’s precise site in Apahida is unclear, it is still interpreted in connection to the Ist grave of Onachar, as a similar reading of the monogram is suggested to the one [Ona(c)har|us, cf. Szabó 2020a‑b] that stands on the namering. As the letter O of the namering does not appear in the monogram, and the letter M of the monogram does not appear on the namering, the presumption of identical names in case of the two rings can undoubtedly be turned down. Based on its shape, the monogram is a block or box monogram, which can be dated to the period between the 5th and 7th century AD (Pl. III/1). According to the characteristics of the monogram type, it shows every letter of the word and each letter appears only once. Monograms from this period usually contain either personal names or office names, with genitive ending. Due to these reasons as well, the former readings: Marc(us) [J. Hampel], Audomariuς [I. Bóna], Marιaς [J. Spier], Omacar(?) [C. H. Opreanu] are not adequate. Former literature suggested and used Latin and Greek as reading languages for the monogram. A Greek reading must be considered because there might be a Σ i.e. C (i.e. sigma lunata) letter, on the right side of the imprinted monogram (Pl. III/2). Based on the structure of the monogram and the reading rules of the monogram type, furthermore with regards to all the solutions provided by the identifiable letters conjoined in alphabetical order, the monogram gives the Latin MAVRICI (nom. Mauricius or Mauricus as well) reading (Pl. III/3, 5). A not likely, speculative Greek MAΥPIΣI (nom. Mαυρις) solution (Pl. III/4) could be considered at most a Graecism because of the Latin ‑i instead of a Greek ‑ou for the genitive ending. The “Germanized” nominative version of the name without the Latin ending is MAVRIC (Mauric). Until now, the name was unknown in Germanic milieu. The ‑ric (‑rik, ‑rich) ending might have contributed to the use of the name in Germanic milieu. The sealring was made in a Christian milieu, and its owner was probably a Christian, which is indicated by the long- or Latin cross (crux immissa) on the ring head over the monogram (Pl. III/1). Based on the cross and in the context of the Age (5th-6th centuries AD), it is uncertain whether thering‑owner belonged to the Roman, Byzantine or Arian church. I have found no long- or Latin cross paired with a Greek monogram, consequently the ring and its owner must be of Western origin. His name may be related to the soldier martyr Mauricius from Agaunum (Saint‑Maurice, Valais canton, Switzerland) and the spreading popularity of his cult among Christians. The name refers to the centre and point of origin of the St. Mauricius (Saint Maurice) cult, the territory of the Burgundian Kingdom, conquered by the Francs in the first quarter of the 6th century AD. Compared to the western Germanic type of the finds, namely the artefacts from the Ist‑IInd‑IIIrd(?) “princely” graves from Apahida [cf. Gáll et alii 2017, 26–28, nos. 9–10, 11–13], it can be assumed, that Mauric from Apahida – who can be examined in the same context –, was a western Germanic regulus who fled either from internal political conflict or from the Franc conquest. Similarly to the regulus “Onachar from Apahida” [Ona(c)har|us ≈ Aunacharius, cf. Szabó 2020a‑b], who – based on his name and personal artefacts – had also western Germanic connections, Mauric i.e. Mauricius or Mauricus also settled in the confine of the Gepidic world. He might not only have had a role in the appearance of the eastern Merovingian culture in Transylvania [cf. Dobos 2019], but also in the rise of the settlement in Apahida or its vicinity as a regional political‑administrative centre. The damages on the surface of the sealring with monogram indicate its presumably longer usage in a kind of “chancellery” practice."

UNDERGROUND CRUCIFORM STRUCTURE IN NARYN-KALA: 
 A CHURCH? PRO ET CONTRA

The article discusses the interpretation of a mysterious underground building, situated in the Derbent citadel Naryn-Kala. This monumental structure is a crucifix (Latin cross) in plan, oriented with a long axis along the NNW-SSE line, roofed with pointed arches and a dome. On the plans of the citadel of Derbent in the early-mid-19th century, this underground building is indicated as a cruciform structure with the caption “water reservoir”. In historical, reference literature and documentation it is defined as an underground water reservoir of the 17th – 18th centuries. In 1976, A.A. Kudryavstev first suggested that this building was originally a church of the 5th – 6th centuries. After almost 40 years, his suggestion was recognized as an established fact, however, with no solid ground or any supplementary reasons. At the same time, distortion of facts and forgery were recorded. This unfounded opinion was promoted even by high-ranking government officials. In 1998, G.M. Kurbanov assumed a possible interpretation of this site as a Zoroastrian fire temple. In 2020, V.L. Myts speculated that this is a Christian martyrium. However, architectural and archeological data contradict these interpretations: the land-based, early medieval, or religious nature of the building has not been proved. Comprehensive (architectural, archeological, magnetometric, etc.) study of this site, without large-scale archeological excavations, is needed.

제2차 세계대전 전쟁 묘지에 나타난 기념성† - 서유럽에 있는 미국군, 영연방군, 독일군 묘지를 대상으로 -

The purpose of this study was to analyze commemoration characteristics of the United States of America, the Commonwealth, and Germany through representative 14 military cemeteries of World war II in Western Europe. Based on the commemoration characteristics such as spacial characteristic, commemorative elements, and graves and headstone, the commemoration culture among U.S., the Commonwealth. and Germany were studied comparatively. The results are as follows. First, taking geometrical form with mainly square type, rarely circle and spiral patterned, most cemeteries were structured spatial central axis with symmetry, those cemeteries were styled neoclassical, but some of the U.S. cemeteries were modernistic, connecting spaces organically with curved line layout. Second, chapel, the wall of missing, the wall of battle map, and sculpture in the U.S military cemeteries, and ‘the cross of sacrifice’ and ‘the stone of remembrance’ as classical monument in the Commonwealth war cemeteries were commonly applied standardized commemorative elements, but commemorative monuments in German military cemeteries were restricted except monumental cross. Third, the symbolic cross of christianism was used all cemeteries to console and cherish the soul of soldiers, specially the Latin crosses in the U.S military cemeteries delivered political message as the american martyr for Western Europe and also the power of the U.S., but the cross in German and the Commonwealth war cemeteries were basically cherish and comfort individual spirit. Fourth, showing the power of victory with national patriotism, the U.S. strongly represented christianism and liberal democracy against communism, the Commonwealth showed imperialistic style, and German military cemeteries were quietly appeared as traditional style forwarding reconciliation and peace. This study suggest the war cemeteries have national identity with typical form and symbolic aesthetics. Further study will be required to materialize sublime commemoration in national cemeteries and to form advanced commemorative culture in Korea.

Foretelling the Phenotype of a Genomic Sequence.

Estimating phenotypic features (physical and biochemical traits) in a biological organism from their genomic sequence alone and/or environmental conditions has major applications in anthropological paleontology and criminal forensics, for example. To what extent do genomic sequences generally and causally determine phenotypic features of organisms, environmental conditions aside? We present results of two studies, one in blackfly (Insecta:Diptera:Simuliidae) larvae in two species (Simulium ignescens and S. tunja) with four phenotypic features, including the area and spot pattern of the cephalic apotome (in the form of a latin cross on the dorsal side of the head), the postgenal cleft (area under the head on the ventral side) and general body color in larva specimens; the second in strains of Arabidopsis thaliana. They establish that a substantial component of these phenotypic features (over 75 percent) are at least logically inferable, if not causally determined, by genomic fragments alone, despite the fact that these phenotypic features are not 100 percent determined entirely by genetic traits. These results suggest that it is possible to infer the genetic contribution in the determination of specific phenotypic features of a biological organism, without recourse to the causal chain of metabolomics and proteomic events leading to them from genomic sequences.

Evolutionary Analysis of the Acoustics of the Baroque Church of San Luis de los Franceses (Seville)

In the 16th century the Society of Jesus built a large number of churches following the Tridentine model of a Latin cross and a single nave. However, the shift towards this model did not entail the abandonment of the central floor plan, especially in the 17th century. The acoustics of these spaces can present phenomena linked to focalizations which increase the sound pressure level. The church of San Luis de los Franceses, built by the Jesuits for their novitiate in Seville (Spain), is an example of a Baroque church with a central floor plan. Although the church has hosted different congregations since its inauguration it is currently desacralized and used for theatres and concerts. The acoustics of this church were studied by the authors through in situ measurements and virtual models. The main objective was to analyse the evolution and perception of its sound field from the 18th to 21st centuries, considering the different audience distributions and sound sources and the modifications in furniture and coatings. Analysis of the evolution of its sound field shows that the characteristics have remained stable, with a notable influence of the dome on the results for the different configurations studied.

Onachar from Apahida (> Onacharus < Aunacharus)

The first Germanic princely grave in Apahida (RO, Cluj County), dated to the second half of the 5th century based on the chronology of the objects placed near the skeleton, was discovered in 1889. Among the objects there were two gold finger rings, a namering and a crossring. On the namering a Latin cross and a male personal name were engraved. The crossring contains four engraved little Latin crosses. Taking into account the archaeological context, the possible Germanic name on the namering was first read OMHAR|VS, then OM^AHAR|VS (C. H. Opreanu, M. Schmauder), and later also OM^AHAR|VG (N. Gudea). The ending is certainly the Latin ‑VS and not ‑VG, nor the V G abreviation (C. H. Opreanu). The original name without the ‑us ending is a hapax and is uninterpretable. Among the Germanic names the OM beginning is unknown. But the M^A like ligature (nexus) is readable as N^A as well, which means that the reading of the name could be ON^AHAR too. The form ONAHAR contains a regular AU > O changing (W. Haubrichs as well), and the H represent the CH voice of the Germanic leanguages. The original form of this name sounds Aunachar, with the Latin ending Aunacharus, which appears in the Aunacharius and Aunarius forms as well. On the name ring the name was engraved phonetically, taking into account the pronunciation, that sounds Onachar, i.e. Onacharus [=On^a(c)har|us]. The existing name along with the similar names are known from the western Germanic area of the age. Considering the deposited objects and the name, Onachar could have been a western Germanic fugitive regulus, who was accepted by the local Gepid chief of that period, together with his escort.

The World War I Memorial Cross Case: U.S. Supreme Court Takes a New Approach with the Establishment Clause

On June 20, 2019, the Supreme Court of the United States handed down its much-awaited opinion in American Legion v. American Humanist Association, concerning constitutional restraints on religious expression by government. A World War I Memorial in the State of Maryland centered on a 32-foot tall Latin cross was alleged to prefer the Christian faith. By a division of seven to two, the High Court held that the state’s sponsorship and maintenance of the WW I Memorial Cross did not violate the Establishment Clause. In doing so, six of those seven justices refused to follow the formulation announced almost 60 years ago in Lemon v. Kurtzman, as well as Lemon’s no-endorsement spin-off, and they proceeded to followed a different interpretative approach—albeit not the same approach by each justice. Cases involving religious content or imagery in longstanding monuments, mottos, and displays are now likely upheld. Most important, five of the seven justices, still a Court majority, interpreted the Establishment Clause by aligning it with historical practices at the founding and early republic. There is no denying that a Latin cross is the preeminent symbol of Christianity. There also is no denying that the tall Latin cross is the dominant feature of the WW I Memorial located on a traffic island at a highway intersection in urban Maryland. While the site is not easily accessible to pedestrians, to automobile passengers such as Plaintiffs the cross is the memorial’s only discernable feature as they negotiating their way through the busy intersection. After detailing the facts, Part II of this article is an account of the High Court’s decision, splintered into six separate opinions by the seven-justice majority, concerning all that ails Lemon and its uneven results. Most importantly, it discusses how five of these seven justices interpreted the Establishment Clause by reference to historical practices—but with continued division over which events from the past are binding. The separate opinions concurring in the judgment by the two conservative justices, Thomas and Gorsuch, are essential to understanding the ascendance of the historical test. Part III of the article raises multiple concerns about the decision in American Legion. The Plaintiffs sought only prospective injunctive relief, not compensatory damages for past injuries. That should have put the judiciary’s focus primarily on the present intentions and actions of the State of Maryland in continuing to sponsor the Memorial Cross. Instead, the Court entertained testimony about decision points over the memorial’s hundred-year history, and evidence about the purposes not just of the government but private parties. Given Plaintiffs’ limited claim, only the present intentions of state actors are material. Also, overlooked by the Court is the role the Establishment Clause has in preventing harm to religion by too close an embrace by government. For example, for government to appropriate a religious symbol or name and use it to advance the state’s own policies can result in a church’s identity being confused or diluted. Moreover, government-favored religion can become civil religion, along with its conflation of patriotism and piety. An interest in preventing such injury was not represented by any of the parties before this Court, albeit Justice Ginsburg did touch on it in her dissent. Although urged forward by Defendants, the Court did not adopt a “coercion test.” That would have overturned a long line of precedent going back to the early 1960s. Too bad a couple of the concurring opinions spoke favorably of the test. There also was a suggestion that public perception of state “hostility to religion” was unconstitutional, when it is axiomatic that government is alone accountable for “state action,” not private perceptions. Finally, Justice Gorsuch did not join the Court’s opinion because he thought Plaintiffs did not have standing to sue. Yet the Court has four times reduced the rigor of standing in cases like this so that the Establishment Clause can fulfill its role in rightly ordering these two centers of authority we call church and state.

Identity construction of the European medium sized city through the monasticism repercussions in Écija

The monasticism appeared during the dawn of Christianity has made a major contribution to Europe’s culture and identity. The spread of Christian faith throughout the continent was achieved not only through a new morality and religion but also through art and convent architecture. The Middle Ages were the peak of this monastic production. Orders such as Cistercians or Dominicans would appear mainly in France and Italy spreading their rules and ways of life to the whole continent. It is a phenomenon that transcends borders, kingdoms and geographical elements, bringing together many people under the same identity. The flag of the Latin cross waved in the European Middle Ages. However, the reality in southern Iberian Peninsula was different. Al-Andalus stood as a bastion of Islam in Europe long before the appearance of the Ottoman Empire. At the end of the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Castile began to occupy territories held by the Muslim Kingdom of Granada. The need to Christianise the new conquered lands would call a multitude of monastic orders settled in Europe to focus their attention on the new Kingdom of Seville. The main cities such as Seville, Cordoba, etc. would be the most coveted for the new foundations. Nevertheless, Écija is located in the Guadalquivir river valley in a difficult position on the border with the Kingdom of Granada. In the 14th Century, Écija had close to 10, 000 inhabitants, which, at the time, was a large number. A city which was an attraction point for Christian Communities, which according to their origin, 31% came from Italy, 22% from France, 37% from Spain and 10% from Jerusalem. The study of Écija shows the crossing of continental relationships through monasticism. How could the influence of Christianity manage to cover an entire continent to the most remote place? We could find the keys to understand the urban construction of western monasticism through the main average conventual cities in Andalusia.

Las iglesias de época bizantina en Nablus (Neapolis), Palestina

Our aim is to research and catalogue archaeological and historical information on all the churches in Nablus from the Byzantine period, built from the beginning the fourth century ad to 638 ad –16 ah– and discovered from the nineteenth to twenty-first centuries. We also aimed to provide a description of each building in terms of usage and form. We have extracted information from Byzantine literary and historical sources and Samaritan religious sources, as well as from reports on archaeological excavations, for analysing and drawing conclusions. In our study, we discuss the reuse of former Samaritan, Christian or Islamic sites, for reconstruction or conversion of the buildings to adapt them for use by the religion of the conquerors, whether it be Samaritan, Christian or Islamic. The churches have never been the subject of a comprehensive archaeological study due to the biblical focus of archaeological projects in Palestine. We examine each church individually looking at the cross-over or integration of architectural periods and models. Our review leads to the discovery that all the churches built in Nablus during the Byzantine period were of four architecturally distinct types, these being the Latin cross, octagonal central-plan, basilica-plan and rectangular plan. We also found that Christian churches were allowed to remain in use during Islamic rule.

El compendio islámico de Mohanmad de Vera. Un tratado morisco tardío ed. by Raquel Suárez García

Reviewed by: El compendio islámico de Mohanmad de Vera. Un tratado morisco tardío ed. by Raquel Suárez García Payton Phillips Quintanilla Suárez García, Raquel, ed. El compendio islámico de Mohanmad de Vera. Un tratado morisco tardío. Oviedo: U de Oviedo, 2016. 776 pp. ISBN: 978-84-16343-35-5 Sometime during the first decade of the 17th century, a man named Mohanmad de Vera, of Gea del Albarracín (Aragón), carefully compiled a text designed for the religious indoctrination of fellow Moriscos seeking to properly practice Islam. This text (BNF Manuscript Espagnol 397), now masterfully edited by Raquel Suárez García, is one of a very small number of extant manuscripts known to be written in Latin script by Moriscos on the Peninsula in the years just prior to their expulsion, carried out between 1609 and 1614. It is also the first manuscript of said characteristics to be published in the Colección de Literatura Española Aljamiado-Morisca (CLEAM) of the University of Oviedo's Seminario de Estudios Árabo-Románicos. Additionally, it is the first volume to be published by CLEAM since 2005, and thus it ushers in a new era for this longstanding and highly respected collection. Suárez García describes De Vera's compendium as an intertextual religious manual and, in her study preceding the edition ("Primera parte: Estudios sobre la obra"), she demonstrates how De Vera, as author / compiler, was concerned with presenting his Aljamiado source texts faithfully while still producing a practical tool for Islamic instruction in a community that lacked access to both the Arabic language and its alphabet. Not only does De Vera use Latin script to write in a modern, learned, literary Castilian, but even his religious language is more highly Christianized than that found in similar texts. This convergence offers today's readers a rare glimpse into a world of deeply Hispanicized Moriscos practicing–or interested in practicing–Islam while living on the very cusp of expulsion. Indeed, De Vera was likely one of the two thousand Moriscos expelled from Gea del Albarracín in 1610, leaving only eighty Old Christian neighbors behind. In spite of its unique import, however, De Vera's compendium has been regretfully understudied. This situation will most certainly be remedied by Suárez García's edition. Chapter 1 ("El compendio de Mohanmad de Vera") offers a summary of existing scholarship that addresses MS. Esp. 397, namely the works of Silvestre de Sacy (1827), A. Morel-Fatio (1892), L. P. Harvey (1958), Louis Cardaillac (1979), and, most notably, Gerard Wiegers (1989). Suárez García also gives us a complete codicological and paleographic description of the manuscript, and later an [End Page 125] exposition of what is known–or can be reasonably surmised–about the author, his place of origin, and the circumstances in which he wrote / compiled his book. Suárez García then places the compendium in the context of four other manuscripts that share its key qualities: all were written by Moriscos on the Peninsula in Latin script, apparently based on earlier Aljamiado versions, and within the decade preceding the beginning of the expulsion. Even within this context, however, De Vera's work stands out. Stylistically and linguistically, it is both more Castilianized and more Christianized than these other examples, aligning it much more closely to works written by Moriscos in exile. Even so, Suárez García convincingly argues–in line with Harvey, Cardaillac, and Wiegers–that the compendium was written on the Peninsula and not (as previously suggested by Epalza) in North Africa: the author dates his text using the Christian calendar, writes it on paper watermarked by a Latin cross (common to peninsular– and peninsular Morisco–manuscripts of the period), and relies heavily on Yça de Gebir's Breviario çunní -a mid-fifteenth-century peninsular treatise on Islamic religious and legislative practices completed in 1462 that lost favor in exile, where a wide variety of Islamic treatises were readily available for consultation and consumption. In addition to extensive selections from the Breviario çunní, De Vera's compendium comprises Las encomiendas de Mohanmad a Ali (a collection of...

The Origin of the Iconostasis in Early Christian Churches in the Holy Land

A typical feature of Eastern Orthodox churches is the iconostasis which separates the inner sanctuary reserved to the clergy from the nave occupied by the laity, preventing the faithful from glimpsing atthe sacerdotal proceedings behind the screen. In its present form, it is of relatively recent origin, the product of an evolution in design and liturgical function throughout the history of the church. The precursor of the iconostasis was a low screen which enclosed the altar area in the early Byzantine churches but did not exclude the worshippers from a full view of the clergy celebrating. Dozens of screens made of marble or limestone have been discovered in the provinces of Palaestina, southern Phoenicia and Arabia. They are carved with a number of motifs that recur with only minor variations. Among the most common motifs are the Latin cross, the Maltesecross within a laurel wreath, the stephanostaurion, and a cross standing on three semi-circles symbolising the hillock of Golgotha. The latter is sometimes flanked by a pair of sheep or deer. In the 6th century AD, chancel screens also began to appear in synagogues where they are decorated with Jewish motifs. A further stage in the development of chancel screens in churches is the templon, an architrave at a higher level resting on colonnettes. In Russia, the intercolumnar spaces of the templon remained free of icons until the 14th century. Wooden icons began to be inserted in the intercolumnar spaces of the templon in the late 14th and 15th centuries when the great icon painters started to paint full-length figures on icons of monumental proportion. The creation of the iconostasis as a solid wall is due to a combination of cultural and theological factors, including the Hesychast doctrine which favoured the contemplation of icons.

II. Theodosius’un Fermanının Arka Planına Karşı Arabistan Eyaleti ve Yakın Bölgelerdeki Kiliselerin Mozaik Tabanlarında Görülen Haçlar

Between the 4th and 8th centuries A.D., many churches were founded in Provincia Arabia and neighbouring territories (today’s Transjordan). Most of the churches were paved with mosaics. The mosaics floors are decorated with geometric, vegetal and figurative carpets with a rich repertoire of scenes of daily life, sometimes accompanied by personifications. The floors were also decorated with symbolic heraldic arrangements and symbolic motifs, among them crosses. This research focus on a description of the different types of cross found in Byzantine churches in Transjordan, their position on the mosaic floors and in the church space, and the use of parallel motifs with equivalent significance as concealed crosses. The repertoire of crosses is rich, and crosses have been found of the equal-armed Greek cross type, the Latin cross, the Maltese cross, or a geometric interlace in the form of a Greek cross. There are also crosses of the crux clipeata, crux gemmata and crux decussate type. In some places the letters ΑΩ are shown between the arms of the cross, or suspended from the vertical arm. In other places the cross is shown on a graduated mound symbolizing the hill of Golgotha. The crosses in mosaic floors decorate the vestibules of church complexes, churches, chapels attached to churches, crypts, martyrium chapels, funerary chapels, and baptisteries. They are not hidden, and are not limited to a specific part of the church or chapel building; on the contrary, the crosses are open to view and appear in the apse, the bema, the sacristy, halls, panels between columns, the narthex, vestibules and passageways or entrances between spaces. The appearance of crosses on mosaic floors in churches is seemingly surprising, because it contravenes the edict issued in A.D. 427 by the Emperor Theodosius II. But this edict had scant influence on the mosaics of our region, and the archaeological finds testify to the existence of crosses carved in stone or incorporated in the mosaic floors of the churches in Transjordan and in the adjacent territories, despite the risk of desecration, due to the position of crosses along the path of entry into the church and the traffic route inside the church, where people might walk and step on them. The archaeological evidence testifies to the gap between the spirit of the edict and reality on the ground, and contributes to an understanding of the phenomenon