Lateral Display Research Articles

Reproductive behavior in the annual fish Austrolebias reicherti Loureiro & García 2004 (Cyprinodontiformes: Rivulidae)

Annual fishes inhabit temporary ponds that dry out seasonally and the adaptations to survive this extreme condition include high metabolic rates and an elaborate courtship behavior which ends in the deposition of drought-resistant eggs, capable of going through diapause stages in the substrate. The pronounced sexual dimorphism that these fishes show suggests that sexual selection could play a key role in the differentiation, speciation and evolution of this diverse group of fishes. However, there is scarce information about their reproductive isolation mechanisms, including detailed analysis of courtship signals. Herein, we analyzed, qualitatively and quantitatively, the reproductive behavior of Austrolebias reicherti. The behavioral units recognized in this study correspond with the previous analysis of other species of annual fishes. The most frequent unit in males was the lateral display where specific morphological and coloration patterns are displayed to the female. The female's high relative frequency and time of quietness suggest that this unit may have an evaluation role during courtship. In addition to visual displays during courtship, males perform vibrations of the dorsal and anal fins as well as body undulations; these indicate that mechanical signals may be important for attracting females. Our results support the hypothesis of multimodal signals. The conservation of behavioral patterns in courtship displays within Austrolebias suggests that species-level recognition and the barrier to hybridization may not occur at this stage, unless quantitative differences can be identified.

MALE BEHAVIORS OF SOCIALLY MONOGAMOUS TIBETAN EARED-PHEASANTS DURING THE BREEDING SEASON

Abstract The social behavior of free-living male Tibetan Eared-pheasants (Crossoptilon harmani) is described during their breeding season at a site near Lhasa, Tibet. Four types of male-male interactions were identified. (1) Mate guarding. A male maintained vigilance behavior near his partner. (2) Evading. A male urged the female to avoid other breeding males. (3) Lateral display. A male laterally presented his body to another male and the latter postured submissively. On a few occasions, displaying males escaped alone and dominant males attempted to copulate with mates of these males. (4) Driving. A male violently drove off any males that came too near his mate. These behavioral types emerged as pair members associated in groups in early spring, became extensive as pair bonds intensified, and disappeared with hatching. Paired males occasionally displayed to subadult males, but no display activity was observed between subadult males. These interactions were unidirectional for a group in which all male mem...

Single gene mutations causing exaggerated fins also cause non-genetic changes in the display behavior of male zebrafish

AbstractWe show that the exaggerated changes in fin lengths of zebrafish (Danio rerio) caused by a single gene mutation also resulted in changes in the lateral display rate. However, the increase in this threat display rate only occurred when both fish had very long fins. Fish with shorter fins did not show such an increase when they met fish with longer, same size, or shorter fins. Cutting the long fins to resemble the shorter fin types reduced the display rate, demonstrating that genetic differences do not account for the differences in behavior. These results suggest that species differences in the performance of a display may reflect only the physical differences in the display structure.

Intraspecific differences in patterns of courtship behaviours between the Pacific Ocean and Japan Sea forms of the three‐spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus

The courtship behaviour of the Pacific Ocean and Japan Sea forms of the three‐spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus were studied in seven populations. The intraspecific difference in behavioural patterns, zigzag dance and weak dorsal pricking in the Pacific Ocean form and lateral display and vigorous dorsal pricking in the Japan Sea form, was clearly distinguishable regardless of the type of habitat the males lived in.

Aggressive behaviour and energy metabolism in a cichlid fish, Oreochromis mossambicus

We have investigated the effect of mirror-elicited agonistic behaviour on oxygen consumption in the Mozambique tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus (Cichlidae). Males exposed to their mirror image showed higher frequencies of both lateral display and tail-beating and escalated aggression more frequently than males exposed to a transparent glass that was used as a control for the presence of a novel object in the tank. This aggressive response was correlated with an increase in oxygen consumption. Overt aggression was highly correlated with display behaviour and with locomotor activity. Bivariate analyses showed high correlation (explaining about 64% of variation) between overt aggression, locomotor activity and metabolic rates. Weakly positive bivariate correlations between displays and metabolic rates turned spurious after partialling out aggression. The data suggest that energetic costs only emerge late during the conflict, when animals escalate their aggressive behaviour.

Signal use by collared lizards, Crotaphytus collaris : the effects of familiarity and threat

Many lizard species use lateral compressions of the body during agonistic encounters. I investigated the signal value of the frequency at which these displays are presented and how that rate is affected by familiarity and threat. The response of resident collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris) to tethered strangers, neighbors on the correct boundary, and neighbors displaced to the opposite boundary, was recorded by counting the number of lateral displays directed at the intruder and the number of subsequent acts of escalated aggression. There was no relationship between size asymmetry of the opponent and the rate of lateral display or aggression, nor was there a relationship between body size and the rate of lateral display or aggression. However, there was a high positive correlation between lateral display rate and aggression, suggesting that the rate of lateral displays is a conventional signal of motivation to attack. The highest rates of display and aggression were directed toward displaced neighbors, somewhat less toward strangers, and the least toward neighbors at the correct boundary. The ratio of aggressive acts to lateral displays followed the same pattern, presumably because the perceived threat to the resident decreases in the same order. Taken together these data suggest that collared lizards are able to assess the threat of an opponent and signal motivation to respond aggressively towards that opponent.

Is the parallel walk between competing male fallow deer, Dama dama, a lateral display of individual quality?

During competitive encounters protagonists are expected to use signals of individual quality particularly if there is a risk of injury or death. Lateral presentation of body profile, by which information regarding phenotypic characteristics associated with individual quality are displayed, may represent such a strategy. During aggressive interactions, male fallow deer frequently engage in parallel walking which is assumed to represent a mutual display of quality, as mediated by exposure of the maximal profile of the body or antlers. We examined the context and role of the parallel walk during competitive encounters to investigate whether there was evidence that dyads of competing males were assessing differences in phenotypic characteristics. There was no evidence to support the hypotheses that the parallel walk is a lateral display of body size or weaponry or that its use is associated with a reduced level of escalated or risky behaviours during fighting. Total time spent fighting was not shorter when a parallel walk was present than when there was no parallel walk. The parallel walk was highly associated with fighting and it was more likely to be initiated by the subsequent loser. Furthermore, parallel walking frequently followed bouts of fighting and as such may represent a strategy that permits an animal the opportunity to decide whether to continue fighting. Parallel walking was also associated with a failure to resolve contests in favour of one animal indicating that it may be a means of withdrawing from further fighting without incurring a loss in dominance status. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.

Sequential assessment in contests among common freshwater goby,Rhinogobius brunneus(Pisces, Gobiidae)

The sequential assessment model describes a fight between two conspecific as an ongoing statistical sampling process, which makes it possible to predict fight length or repetition number of a behavioral element depending on relative RHP (resource holding potential; e.g. weight or fighting ability). We staged contests between males of common freshwater gobies to test some predictions of this model. Fights proceeded in a consistent sequence of phases. Most contests began with two contestants adopting lateral display, and then escalated to intense physical contacts. The length of contests was negatively correlated with weight difference between the contestants. The duration of complete phases was, however, independent of weight, and the prior information gained during complete phases did not appear to affect subsequent phases of the fight. Our results show that the contests of common freshwater gobies are well predicted by the sequential assessment model.

Behavioral rules and tail-up display in extra- and intra-pair interactions of the butterflyfish,Chaetodon lunulatus

The butterflyfish,Chaetodon lunulatus, forms monogamous pair bonds. Each pair defends a feeding territory against conspecifics. The tail-up or lateral display of the butterflyfish is performed not only towards non-partners in territorial disputes (extra-pair interaction), but also towards partners (intra-pair interaction). In order to explain this phenomenon, I investigated the two interaction types, and found that a simple model explains both interactions very well. The model consists of four behavioral rules and two provisos for applying the rules. Rule 1: Perform the tail-up display when approached by another individual. Rule 2: Perform the tail-up display when another individual performs the tail-up display. Rule 3: Attack another individual that neither approaches nor performs the tail-up display. Rule 4: Swim with your partner. Proviso 1: Apply Rules 1 and 2 when you do not intend to run away. Proviso 2: Apply Rules 1, 2, and 3 when you do not recognize another individual as your partner. When Rules 1–4 and Provisos 1–2 are applied, the display can prevent improper attacks between partners caused by imperfect partner recognition.

An ethogram of body patterning behavior in the biomedically and commercially valuable squid Loligo pealei off Cape Cod, Massachusetts.

Squids have a wide repertoire of body patterns; these patterns contain visual signals assembled from a highly diverse inventory of chromatic, postural, and locomotor components. The chromatic components reflect the activity of dermal chromatophore organs that, like the postural and locomotor muscles, are controlled directly from the central nervous system. Because a thorough knowledge of body patterns is fundamental to an understanding of squid behavior, we have compiled and described an ethogram (a catalog of body patterns and associated behaviors) for Loligo pealei. Observations of this species were made over a period of three years (> or = 440 h) and under a variety of behavioral circumstances. The natural behavior of the squid was filmed on spawning grounds off Cape Cod (northwestern Atlantic), and behavioral trials in the laboratory were run in large tanks. The body pattern components--34 chromatic (including 4 polarization components), 5 postural, and 12 locomotor--are each described in detail. Eleven of the most common body patterns are also described. Four of them are chronic, or long-lasting, patterns for crypsis; an example is Banded Bottom Sitting, which produces disruptive coloration against the substrate. The remaining seven patterns are acute; they are mostly used in intraspecific communication among spawning squids. Two of these acute patterns--Lateral Display and Mate Guarding Pattern--are used during agonistic bouts and mate guarding; they are visually bright and conspicuous, which may subject the squids to predation; but we hypothesize that schooling and diurnal activity may offset the disadvantage presented by increased visibility to predators. The rapid changeability and the diversity of body patterns used for crypsis and communication are discussed in the context of the behavioral ecology of this species.

Aggressive interactions in pure and mixed groups of juvenile farmed and hatchery-reared wild Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. in relation to tank substrate

Total aggression and individual behavioural traits of equal-sized juveniles of farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar L. selected for five generations in the Norwegian Breeding Programme for Salmonids and a wild strain originating from the River Rauma, Norway, were compared in pure (10 fish) and mixed (5 + 5 fish) groups. Total aggression was defined as the sum of the following five offensive behaviour patterns: intentional movements, lateral display, frontal display, charge and bite. Experiments were carried out in 2-m2 tanks with either a grey fibreglass substrate (pure and mixed groups) or diagonally divided into a fibreglass and river cobble substrate (mixed groups only). In mixed groups kept on a fibreglass substrate, the aggressive behaviour directed by wild salmon towards farmed salmon was more frequent than the reverse (84.2 and 27.0 aggressive acts h–1, respectively, P 0.1) and single behaviour patterns. The aggressive behaviour of farmed offspring was not influenced by vertical distribution in the tanks with a fibreglass substrate. Farmed salmon tended to position pelagically (78%) and used the water column more frequently than wild salmon (19%), whereas wild salmon hid more. It is concluded that social interactions among groups of juvenile Atlantic salmon are influenced by substrate.

Effects of male dominance and courtship display on female choice in the ring-necked pheasant

Male traits and behaviours acting in mate choice and intrasexual competition are expected to be congruent. When studying their evolution, this often makes it difficult to differentiate between these two components of sexual selection. Studies are therefore needed on mate choice in conjunction with the role of displays and dominance. We present the results from two experiments conducted to investigate the effects of male dominance and courtship displays on female choice in the ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, controlling for differences in morphological male traits. We found: (1) different courtship behaviours had different effects on female choice: females were mainly attracted by the feeding courtship behaviour, while another courtship display (the lateral display) was effective in producing the copulation-acceptance response by the females; (2) subordinate males performed the courtship behaviour before females less frequently than dominant males, and females reinforced intrasexual selection by choosing dominant males, and (3) subordinate males in visual contact with a dominant became less attractive to females. The results support the idea (armament-ornament model) that female pheasants may benefit from using traits selected in male-male competition as clues for mate choice.

Development of agonistic behaviour and vocalization in croaking gouramis

The development of agonistic behaviour and vocalization in the croaking gourami Trichopsis vittata was studied from hatching to sexual maturity (4 months of age). Initial interactions started when fry were 11 days old and consisted of approach and flight in a feeding context. More complex threat patterns appeared during dyadic encounters as fish grew older. Lateral display (spreading of median fins in a lateral position) first occurred during the third week, circling shortly afterwards and pectoral fin beating when fish were 7 weeks old. Rapid pectoral fin beating was first accompanied by sound emission at 8 weeks. Initially, croaking sounds were built up mainly of a series of single pulses, each one produced by one pectoral fin. Later, single pulses gave way to double pulses. Furthermore, pulse period and number of pulses increased, while the dominant frequency of croaks decreased significantly with age. After vocalization was established, frontal display, mouth biting and retreat behaviour occurred at the age of 10 weeks. Initially, young exhibited vertical bars which gave way to dots and horizontal bars at 8 weeks when fish started to vocalize. The order of appearance of behavioural patterns during ontogeny corresponds to the order of appearance in fights between adults. This is the first study demonstrating that the ontogenetic development of social signalling comprises characteristic changes in behaviour, vocalization and coloration in a teleost fish.

Fighting behaviour, vigilance and predation risk in the cichlid fishNannacara anomala

I studied the fighting behaviour of a small South American cichlid fish,Nannacara anomala, in relation to predation risk. In this species, which reduces vigilance during escalated fighting, differences in fighting ability are most accurately assessed during mouth wrestling. Thus, there is a potential trade-off between agonistic behaviours that are effective for assessing differences in fighting ability between contestants and agonistic behaviours that minimize the risk of being killed by predators. I investigated whether breaks between bouts of mouth wrestling improved the contestants' ability to flee from an approaching model fish predator. During the breaks between mouth wrestling the contestants had a significantly longer escape distance than males that were actively mouth wrestling. Fighting males also changed their fighting behaviour after the introduction of the model predator compared with males that were not exposed to it. Low-intensity behaviours such as lateral display and tail beating were preferred to mouth wrestling. In addition, both the number and duration of bouts of active mouth wrestling decreased significantly after the introduction of the model predator while the duration of the breaks between bouts of active mouth wrestling increased significantly compared with the control. Including predation risk in the costs of intense fighting may increase our understanding of both the temporal structuring of fighting behaviour and the evolution of fighting behaviour in general.1998 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour

Comparative displays among four species of tragopans and their derivation and function

This paper provides the first description and comparison of courtship behaviours in males of four species of tragopans in captivity. Inter-specific comparisons of each of the five displays (frontal, lateral, wing whir, flight, and lappet dropping) were similar with one main difference; Temminck's and Satyr tragopans assumed an arched posture, in addition to the upright posture during the lateral display. All frontal and lateral displays were performed only in front of females and most likely have a sexual function. In contrast, wing whir, flight, and lappet dropping displays were also performed in front of other males. Therefore, these displays are most likely to be sexual and aggressive in function and may also be a form of comfort behaviour in the lappet display. The first female displays are described for this genus. Intra- and inter-specific lateral displays in females were only directed towards other females and probably function as a threat display. Because of the similarities of the five displays among the four species of tragopans studied, courtship displays do not appear to serve as behavioural isolating mechanisms in zones of sympatry. However, lappet dropping, flight, and frontal displays are unique to this genus and probably function to reduce intergeneric hybridization. Female choice is probably based on differences in plumage colouration, lappet pattern and colouration, and vocalizations rather than display characteristics, as the former characteristics have diverged considerably as a result of sexual selection.

Agonistic Behavior in the Squid Loligo plei (Loliginidae, Teuthoidea): Fighting Tactics and the Effects of Size and Resource Value

AbstractObservations of small schools of squids in captivity suggested that dominance relationships among males were based upon major differences in the frequency or duration of their agonistic behavior, but staged contests showed few differences. During staged contests, squids exhibited up to 21 separate behaviors. Some contests included a complex array of visual signals and side‐by‐side posturing (Lateral Display) followed by physical contact during Fin beating. There was behavioral variability and step‐wise escalation during the contests: squids performed either 1. long sequences of visual signaling followed by Chasing and Fleeing; or 2. short sequences of visual signaling followed by physical Fin beating and ending with Chasing and Fleeing. Size influenced outcome in all contests; larger males were more likely to win the contest. Size had no effect on contest duration, but contest duration was shorter when resource value was high, especially when a male established temporary ownership of a female. We speculate that when the perceived resource value is high, male squids are more likely to engage in a shorter yet riskier fighting tactic.

Lateral display as a combat tactic in richardson's ground squirrel Spermophilus richardsonii

During fighting, adult ground squirrels frequently face each other laterally, arch the back, and piloerect the tail. In a diurnal species, such distinctive visual cues seem consistent with the suggestion that the lateral display serves a communicatory function. However, a detailed analysis of videotaped sequences of free-living Richardson's ground squirrels from two consecutive mating seasons suggested that the lateral maneuver has a functional role in combat. Because most agonistic encounters involve chasing, the rump is the principal body area bitten. When stationary, however, the opponent's rump is bypassed, and bites are targeted at the shoulders. Defensively, a hip thrust is used to block such attacks to the shoulder by pushing the opponent's head away. Offensively, the lateral maneuver is used to push against the opponent, providing a vantage point from which to lunge at the opponent's shoulders. In addition, the defender can launch counterattacks at the side of the head. The lateral orientation provides the attacker with a means of evading such attacks, by swerving laterally away. In some encounters, both the offensive and defensive variations of the lateral maneuver were used by both opponents, often simultaneously. Therefore, irrespective of the signalling function of the lateral display, much of its occurrence during combat can be explained in terms of its role as a combat tactic. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Lateral display as a combat tactic in richardson's ground squirrelSpermophilus richardsonii

During fighting, adult ground squirrels frequently face each other laterally, arch the back, and piloerect the tail. In a diurnal species, such distinctive visual cues seem consistent with the suggestion that the lateral display serves a communicatory function. However, a detailed analysis of videotaped sequences of free-living Richardson's ground squirrels from two consecutive mating seasons suggested that the lateral maneuver has a functional role in combat. Because most agonistic encounters involve chasing, the rump is the principal body area bitten. When stationary, however, the opponent's rump is bypassed, and bites are targeted at the shoulders. Defensively, a hip thrust is used to block such attacks to the shoulder by pushing the opponent's head away. Offensively, the lateral maneuver is used to push against the opponent, providing a vantage point from which to lunge at the opponent's shoulders. In addition, the defender can launch counterattacks at the side of the head. The lateral orientation provides the attacker with a means of evading such attacks, by swerving laterally away. In some encounters, both the offensive and defensive variations of the lateral maneuver were used by both opponents, often simultaneously. Therefore, irrespective of the signalling function of the lateral display, much of its occurrence during combat can be explained in terms of its role as a combat tactic. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Variation in agonistic encounters in a dominance hierarchy of freely interacting red‐spotted masu salmon (Oncorhynchus masou ishikawai)

Abstract– Agonistic behaviour and dominance relationships in red‐spotted masu salmon, Oncorhynchus masou ishikawai, were observed in a mountain stream pool. A linear, size‐structured dominance hierarchy was recognized among individuals, body weight being a more important determinant of dominance status than fish length. Immigrant fish interacted more frequently with residents of similar body size than with larger or smaller fish during the early period following immigration. Thereafter, frequency of interactions rapidly decreased. When a fish was attacked, it reacted in a variety of ways in close accordance with its opponent's dominance rank: responses were to simply flee, flee with lateral display, revolt by performing a counter display or ignore the aggression. Such behavioural modification seems to be established during the successive agonistic encounters, in particular, early encounter periods when frequent interactions took place.

An Ethogram of Body Patterning Behavior in the Squid Loligo vulgaris reynaudii on Spawning Grounds in South Africa.

Squids are capable of a high degree of visual signaling, most of which is expressed through the neurally controlled chromatophore organs in the skin. An accurate catalog (or ethogram) of these signals is an essential prerequisite to quantified behavioral analyses and experimentation. Body patterns such as those described here may also be useful for distinguishing between morphologically identical species or subspecies of commercial importance. The natural behavior of Loligo vulgaris reynaudii on spawning grounds was filmed by divers, and the body patterning repertoire was described in detail; 23 chromatic components, 4 postural components, and 9 locomotor components of body patterning were observed and correlated with different types of behaviors. Most of the chromatic components were expressed during intraspecific behaviors (e.g., agonistic behavior among males, courtship, mating) and, to a lesser extent, during interspecific interactions with fishes. Several of the most basic types of body patterns are described, the most distinctive of which are Lateral Display and White Flashing used between males in agonistic contests. This species is comparable to other Loligo spp. in its complexity of body patterning behavior.