Latent Mean Scores Research Articles

The Bergen-Yale Sexual Addiction Scale (BYSAS): Longitudinal Measurement Invariance Across a Two-Year Interval.

The Bergen-Yale Sexual Addiction Scale (BYSAS; [1]) is arguably the most popular questionnaire at present for assessing sex addiction. Employing Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and treating item scores as ordered categorical, we applied Weighted Least Square Mean and Variance Adjusted Chi-Square (WLSMV) extraction to investigate the longitudinal measurement and structural invariance of ratings on the BYSAS among 276 adults (mean = 31.86 years; SD = 9.94 years; 71% male) over a two-year period, with ratings at three yearly intervals. Overall, there was support for configural invariance, full loading, full threshold, the full unique factor invariance; and all structural (latent variances and covariances) components. Additionally, there was no difference in latent mean scores across the three-time points. The psychometric and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Testing for Measurement Invariance (MI): Do the Structures of Microaggression, Discrimination, and Resilience Among Black Women Living with HIV Remain the Same Across Time?

Assessing measurement invariance and the interplay of discrimination, microaggressions, and resilience among Black women living with HIV (BWLWH) across time utilizing latent class and repeated measure analysis may provide novel insights. A total of 151 BWLWH in a southeastern U.S. city completed surveys focused on multiple forms of microaggressions and discrimination (race, gender, sexual orientation, or HIV-related) and resilience factors (social support, self-efficacy, post-traumatic growth) at baseline, 3months, and 6months. To capture the psychosocial domains of discrimination, microaggressions, and resilience, three latent factors were developed and measured across three time points. Latent class analysis was also conducted to identify and compare meaningful subgroups based on varying levels of discrimination, microaggressions, and resilience reported. Three latent classes were created. MI testing suggested that measurement invariance was partially met (established metric invariance and scalar invariance), and it is possible to compare factor means of discrimination, microaggressions, and resilience across time. Latent factor mean scores of microaggressions and discrimination decreased after 3 and 6months and increased for resilience after 6months and varied over time across the three latent classes identified. The subgroup with the lowest level of discrimination and microaggressions and the highest level of resilience reported at baseline, experienced increases in resilience after months 3 and 6. Clinical interventions, research, and policies aimed at promoting resilience and reducing structural and social barriers linked to racism, sexism, HIV stigma, and classism are needed to improve the health and well-being of BWLWH.

The academic task performance scale: psychometric properties, and measurement invariance across ages, genders and nations

Academic task performance (TP) refers to the proficiency with which students perform in academic tasks through making the right choices and completing core tasks central to their academic studies, on time and to specification. We adapted Koopmans et al.’s task performance scale (TPS) for use within tertiary education and investigated its psychometric properties, internal consistency and measurement invariance across age, gender and national groups in university students (n = 3,265). The results showed that a hierarchical ESEM model with one higher-order task performance factor consisting of time management and task efficiency fitted the data best. The TPS exhibited full measurement invariance across gender and age groups, implying that the latent mean scores can be used to determine differences. However, invariance could only partially be established for national cohorts, implying that cross-national comparisons may not be possible. These findings offer preliminary support for the TPS as a valid instrument for gauging students’ academic task performance.

Validation of the Arabic version of the cyberchondria severity scale 12 items (CSS-12-Ar) among a sample of Lebanese adults

BackgroundTo the best of our knowledge, the Cyberchondria Severity Scale-12 (CSS-12) has not been translated into Arabic; therefore, our objective was to assess the psychometric properties of the Arabic version of the CSS (CSS-12-Ar) among a sample of Lebanese adults.MethodsParticipants were enrolled in January 2021. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was carried out using the MPlus software v.7.2, reporting several goodness-of-fit indicators: Relative Chi-square (χ2/df), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Tucker Lewis Index (TLI). To evaluate measurement invariance across gender, we conducted higher-order multiple group confirmatory analysis using lavaan software.Results449 participants enrolled in this study (mean age: 24.34 ± 8.22 years, 70.6% females). Since the correlations between the four-factor model were very high (r > 0.8), we ran the higher-order CFA in which all first-order latent variables were loading a general factor. The analyzed model was well-fitted to the data χ2(50) = 173.34; p < 0.001; CFI = 0.926; RMSEA = 0.074 [0.062, 0.086]. The Cronbach’s alpha values were good for the total score (0.92), as well as for excessiveness (0.80), distress (0.77), reassurance (0.81) and compulsion (0.76). The results provided evidence of full scalar invariance across gender. The comparison of latent mean scores revealed no significant differences across gender, in either the cyberchondria total score or its facets. The CSS-12 score was positively associated with anxiety (r = 0.10; p = 0.003) (convergent validity), OCD (r = 0.11; p = 0.016) and stress (r = 0.35; p < 0.001) (concurrent validity).ConclusionThe CSS-12-Ar was deemed a suitable scale to measure the severity of cyberchondria among Lebanese university students. We hope that researchers and clinicians can benefit now from this scale.

Urdu Translation and the Validation of a 14-Item Measure to Assess Stress Management Skills in Healthcare Workers: Measurement Invariance Across Gender

This study aims to conduct an Urdu translation and a validation of the ISBF Stress Management Skills Scale in two distinct phases. The first phase includes the forward-back translation method for ISBF. The second phase includes cross validation and the establishment of psychometric properties for the ISBF scale. A sample of 500 adults working in health care was taken from different hospitals and dispensaries. The first phase of the study includes the forward-back translation method. The second phase includes exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with invariance measurement. The total reliability of the scale is reported to be .812. EFA revealed a two-factor structure for ISBF scale, with configural, metric and scalar invariance across males and females, and comparable latent mean scores for males and females. CFA showed goodness-of fit indices for the two factors. The scale showed good internal consistency values. The model fit value includes the value for the goodness of fit index, which was .979, for the adjusted goodness-of fit index: .961, for the comparative fit index: .993, for the incremental fit index: .993, and for the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) value: .033. Good values of composite reliability and convergent validity were measured for both dimensions of the scale. The scale shows that this diagnostic tool can help to assess the skills used to manage stress. For criterion validity, the coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS-21) was used, which showed positive correlations. The subscale of stress management was taken from the Health Promoting Life Style Profile II (HPLP-II), which also showed positive correlations. Significant mean differences were found between scores of healthcare workers with stress management skills and with those without stress management skills. The group of mean differences indicated the females have greater stress management skills as compared to men. The Urdu translated and validated instrument will be helpful in understanding behavior in healthcare settings.

Measuring college belongingness: Structure and measurement of the Sense of Social Fit Scale.

Sense of belonging is theorized to be a fundamental human need and has been shown to have important implications in many domains of life, including academic achievement. The Sense of Social Fit scale (SSF; Walton & Cohen, 2007) is widely used to assess college belongingness, particularly to study differences in academic experiences along lines of gender and race. Despite its wide use, the instrument's latent factor structure and measurement invariance properties have not been reported in the published literature to date. Consequently, researchers regularly use subsets of the SSF's items without psychometric justification. Here, we explore and validate the SSF's factor structure and other psychometric properties, and we provide recommendations about how to score the measure. A one-factor model in Study 1 showed poor fit, and exploratory factor analyses extracted a four-factor solution. Study 2's confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated superior fit of a bifactor model with four specific factors (from Study 1) and one general factor. Ancillary analyses supported a total scale scoring method for the SSF and did not support computing raw subscale scores. We also tested the bifactor model's measurement invariance across gender and race, compared latent mean scores between groups, and established the model's criterion and concurrent validity. We discuss implications and suggestions for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Personality inventory for DSM–5-Brief Form (PID-5-BF): Measurement invariance across men and women.

The study examined the measurement invariance (configural, metric, scalar, and residual) of the Personality Inventory for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) Brief Form (PID-5-BF; Krueger et al., 2013) across gender for the theorized Five-Factor oblique model. A large group of adults (N = 502), with ages ranging from 18 to 67 years, from the Australian general community completed the PID-5-BF. When the Δχ² test was applied, multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis supported configural invariance and full metric and residual invariance. For scalar invariance, at least seven items (constituting 13 thresholds) across the different dimensions lacked invariance for one or more of its thresholds. In addition, controlling all these noninvariance thresholds, women had higher latent mean scores for Negative Affect, and men had higher scores for Antagonism and Disinhibition. When the Δcomparative fit index (ΔCFI) test was applied, the findings also supported the configural invariance model and the full metric and residual invariance models. With the exception of one threshold, all the other thresholds were also invariant. The psychometric and practical implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Socioeconomic and sex inequalities in parent-reported adolescent mental ill-health: time trends in four British birth cohorts.

Studies using symptom-based screeners have suggested that mental ill-health has increased in adolescents in recent decades, however, few studies have tested the equivalence of their instruments, which is critical for inferring changes in prevalence. In addition, little research has explored whether socioeconomic position (SEP) and sex inequalities in adolescent mental health have changed over time. Using structural equationmodelling, we explored SEP and sex differences in harmonised parent reports of emotional and behavioural problems, using data from four UK birth cohorts: the 1958 National Child Development Study (NCDS'58; n=10,868), the 1970 British Cohort Study (BCS'70; n=8,242), the 1991-92 Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC'91; n=5,389), and the 2000-01 Millennium Cohort Study (MCS'01; n=9,338). Compared with the two earliest cohorts, members of MCS'01 had higher latent mean scores on emotional problems (both sexes), and lower scores on behavioural problems (females only). The associations between four indicators of SEP and emotional problems were strongest in MCS'01, with housing tenure having the strongest association. All four SEP indicators were associated with behavioural problems in each cohort, with housing tenure again more strongly associated with problems in the MCS'01. Mediation analyses suggested that the increase in emotional problems occurred despite broadly improving socioeconomic conditions. Our findings suggest that parent reports of adolescent emotional problems, but not behavioural problems, have risen in recent generations and this trend is not solely due to reporting styles. A failure to address widening social inequalities may result in further increases in mental ill-health amongst disadvantaged young people.

Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale: Measurement Invariance Across Sexual Orientation

Gendered racial microaggressions are often assessed using the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale. Despite its use with mixed samples of heterosexual and sexual minority Black women, this instrument has yet to be evaluated for its measurement invariance across sexual orientation. This study evaluated the measurement invariance of the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale across sexual orientation (heterosexual [ n = 1,147] versus lesbian, gay, or bisexual [LGB], n = 359) in a sample of 1,506 Black cisgender women ages 18–30 years old. The Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale's four-factor structure, including Beauty and Sexual Objectification, Silenced and Marginalized, Strong Black Woman, and Angry Black Woman, was replicated with our sample. Results from the multigroup confirmatory factor analysis indicated the Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale had configural, metric, and scalar invariance across sexual orientation groups. Strict invariance was not established. Multi-group comparison of latent factor mean scores revealed Black LGB women as having higher Beauty and Sexual Objectification scores than Black heterosexual women on the Gendered Racial Microaggressions stress appraisal scale. The Gendered Racial Microaggressions Scale can be recommended in meaningfully assessing differences in latent factor mean scores among Black heterosexual and LGB women. Practitioners, researchers, and policy makers should seek to address the role of intersectional microaggressions in the lived experiences of sexual and gender minorities of color, including as it relates to systemic disadvantage and health, mental health, and social disparities.

Validation of a German version of the Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2)

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2) is the most current measure of body appreciation, a central facet of positive body image. This work aimed to examine the factor structure and psychometric properties of a German version. In Study 1 (N = 659; Mage = 27.19, SD = 8.57), exploratory factor analyses (EFA) revealed that the German BAS-2 has a one-dimensional factor structure in women and men, showing cross-gender factor similarity. In Study 2 (N = 472; Mage = 30.08, SD = 12.35), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) further supported the original scale’s one-dimensional factor structure after freeing correlated errors. The German BAS-2 also showed partial scalar invariance across gender, with women and men not differing significantly in latent mean scores. As predicted, we found convergent relationships with measures of self-esteem, intuitive eating, and variables associated with negative body image (i.e., weight- and shape concerns, drive for thinness). Correlations with BMI were small and in an inverse direction. Incremental validity was demonstrated by predicting self-esteem and intuitive eating over and above measures of negative body image. Additionally, the German BAS-2 showed internal consistency and 2-week test-retest reliability. Overall, our results suggest that the German BAS-2 is a psychometrically sound instrument.

Cultural Variation in Aggressive Behavior: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Students’ Exposure to Bullying Across 32 Countries

Introduction. The prevalence rates of bullying vary significantly across countries and continents. Specifically, UNESCO estimates that the prevalence rates vary from 22.8% (Central America) to 48.2% (Sub-Saharan Africa). Recently, these differences among countries and regions have been attributed to culture- and country-level variables. Thus, the first purpose of this study is to examine the comparability of bullying in schools across countries. Secondly, a cross-cultural comparison of the latent mean scores of bullying is implemented. Method. The data of 286,481 adolescent students (M=15.78, SD=0.29) from 32 countries were analyzed using multilevel confirmatory factor analyses (MLCFA) and multigroup factor alignment. Results. Results indicated that the meaning of bullying is equivalent within and between cultures. However, cross-cultural differences in bullying are apparent. East Asian countries have the lowest latent means of bullying, while Southeast Asian countries have the highest means. Anglo-Saxon, Eastern European, Mediterranean, South American, and Middle East countries displayed rather higher scores. Discussion and Conclusion. These findings underscore the existence of cross-cultural differential responding in bullying measures. Further, the implicit role of culture as an important variable that determines the rates of bullying is underscored.

Invariance of the WHO violence against women instrument among Kenyan adolescent girls and young women: Bayesian psychometric modeling.

IntroductionTo make valid comparisons across groups, a measurement instrument needs to be measurement invariant across those groups. The present study evaluates measurement invariance for experience of violence among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in two informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya.MethodsWe used survey data collected from 1,081 AGYW aged 15–22 years from two Nairobi’s informal settlements of Korogocho (n = 617) and Viwandani (n = 464) in 2017 through DREAMS (an initiative aimed at reducing HIV incidence among AGYW with a core package of evidence-based interventions) impact evaluation project. Experience of violence was measured using the 15-item WHO’s violence against women instrument, and factorial (non)invariance assessed within exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) framework. Cross-group measurement invariance was assessed using Bayesian Multiple Indicator Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model across site, age groups, self-reported invitation to participate in DREAMS, marital status, currently in school, education level, religion, ethnic groups, ever had sex, slept hungry at night past 4 weeks, and wealth index.ResultsThe mean and median ages of the AGYW were 17.9 years and 17 years, respectively. About 59% reported having had sex and 58% of AGYW were in school. The percentage reporting each act of violence varied from 1.6% (“attacked you with a weapon”) to 26.5% (“insult you or make you feel bad about yourself”). About 44% (n = 474) of participants experienced ≥1 acts of violence, and 2.7% (n = 29) experienced at least half of the 15 acts. The structure underlying the 15 items was configurally similar to that proposed by WHO, with three factors reflecting either psychological, physical, or sexual violence. Noninvariance was detected for five items—spread across the three domains. Three of five items showed noninvariance only for sleeping hungry at night in the past 4 weeks. As the majority of items did not show evidence of noninvariance, differences in latent mean scores likely reflect actual differences and may not be attributable to measurement artifacts.ConclusionsUsing state-of-the-art statistical techniques on a widely used instrument for measuring exposure to violence among women, this study provides support for the subscales of psychological, physical and sexual violence in a Kenyan AGYW population. The instrument supports comparisons across groups within this population. This is crucial when comparing violence against girls/women prevalence rates and to understand challenges and exchange strategies to reduce abuse or violence experienced by AGYW, or women in general.

A Measurement Invariance Investigation of the Polish Version of the Dual Filial-Piety Scale (DFPS-PL): Student-Employee and Gender Differences in Filial Beliefs.

Filial beliefs are defined as a cognitive script or even a contextualized personality construct for social exchanges, which shapes the attitudes of individuals. In the given study, we investigate the factorial structure of the Polish version of the Dual Filial Piety Scale (DFPS-PL) and verify whether measurement of filial piety is invariant among students and employees, and among men and women. Two studies were conducted on different age samples: 489 students aged 18–24 and 849 employees aged 25–64. In order to verify the hypotheses, the DFPS-PL was administered. As a result of confirmatory factor analyses (CFA), it has been demonstrated that the structure of filial piety measured by the DFPS-PL among students and employees, and men and women, could be interpreted as two-factorial, and that there is partial scalar measurement invariance for the tested model across these groups (MGCFA). The comparison of the average latent mean scores suggests that employees declare a lower level of AFP (Authoritarian Filial Piety; need of social belonging and collective identity) than students. There were no significant differences between students and employees when RFP (Reciprocal Filial Piety; need of interpersonal relatedness) was compared. In addition, the results showed that women score higher in RFP than men. The given findings are discussed in the context of values transition in non-Asian countries. The main contribution is to confirm the factorial structure of the DFPS-PL and introduce the novel Eastern concept of Filial Piety to Western culture.

Nový přístup v testování ekvivalence na příkladu měření subjektivního blahobytu

Survey-based measures of subjective well-being are more and more often analyzed cross-culturally. However, international comparison of these measures requires measurement invariance. Therefore, the major goal of this study was to investigate the cross-country comparability of the five-item subjective well-being scales used in the International Social Survey Programme (2011, 2017). This study applied both the traditional exact and the more recent Bayesian approximate approach to assess whether the subjective well-being scales were measurement invariant. The Bayesian approach detected several non‑invariant items that were problematic for cross-national comparison and could be dropped from the scales. Consequently, measurement invariance was established in all countries for the reduced scales, allowing researchers to meaningfully compare their latent mean scores and the relationships with other theoretical constructs of interest. Thus, the study highlighted the advantages of using multiple indicators and the necessity of measurement invariance testing in subjective well-being research.

Factor Structure, Measurement Invariance Across Gender Sub-Groups, and Normative Data for the Italian Translation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale in Italian Community-Dwelling Adults

To evaluate the factor structure and measurement invariance of the Italian translation of the UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale, while providing also normative data, 797 community dwelling adults were administered the UPPS-P online. Omega coefficient values suggested adequate internal consistency reliability for all the UPPS-P scales. Weighted least square mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed adequate fit for the a priori five-factor model of the UPPS-P items. Measurement invariance findings supported the scalar invariance of the UPPS-P items across male and female sub-group (RMSEA = .052, CFI = .921, D -CFI = .002), thus allowing gender comparisons in terms of latent factor mean scores. Based on these findings, normative data and T scores for the UPPS-P scale score distribution among Italian community-dwelling adults were provided. Hopefully, our findings may help clinicians and researchers to use the UPPS-P in their routine assessment of impulsive behaviors.

Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire: Measurement and Structural Invariance Across Age and Gender Groups

Revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (r-RST) of personality is a major neuropsychological theory of motivation, emotion, and personality. To measure the specific components of r-RST, the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of Personality Questionnaire (RST-PQ; Corr & Cooper(Psychological Assessment 28(11), 1427–1400, 2016) has been developed. The current study examined the measurement (configural, metric, scalar, and residual) and structural (factor variances, covariances) invariance across gender and age groups for an exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) version of the theorized six-factor oblique model. A total of 901 adults (M = 32.07, SD = 16.38) from the general community completed ratings of the RST-PQ. Multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) supported full measurement and structural invariance. There was also no difference for the six latent mean scores across gender and age. The psychometric and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Testing for measurement invariance across gender in the 12-item CES-D: An investigation among a nationally representative sample of African Americans.

Previous studies have conducted tests of measurement invariance (MI) when comparing depressive symptoms across race groups. However, investigations that explore potential within-group differences remain scant. Thus, the current study sought to uncover whether noninvariance exists when using the 12-item CES-D to measure depressive symptoms in African American women and men. Responses from a nationally representative sample of 1,271 African American men and 2,299 African American women who participated in the National Survey of American Life (2001-2003) were analyzed. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis were used to first assess dimensionality of the 12-item CES-D. Next MI tests were performed to determine whether the factor structure differed for men and women. The 2-factor model was retained, and partial metric invariance was achieved. Noninvariance was found in 2 loadings and some of the thresholds. Results suggest that noninvariance may help explain disparate rates of depressive symptoms among African American men and women. Additional consideration should be given before comparing latent mean scores across groups. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Pedagogical content knowledge in students majoring in physical education vs. sport science. The same but different?

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is a special feature providing the teacher with knowledge to transform the content in ways that make it understandable to learners. This is of special importance in physical education (PE), since it is significantly different to other school subjects in many ways i.e., it is the only subject whereby physical activity (PA) is a primary means of accomplishing educational objectives. Given the importance of PCK, it is of special interest to explore the specificity of PCK in in the field of sport science. As research on PCK in German speaking countries is still at the beginning, a cross-sectional study was conducted among 622 students to explore potential differences in relation to education programmes (PE Teacher Education n = 431, sport science n = 191). Measurement invariance (MI) between the groups was carried out using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis models to ensure latent mean scores can be compared meaningfully. The progressive evaluation of MI confirms that it is possible to measure the PCK (scalar) equivalently across PETE and sport science students, along with additional variables relevant to PCK. PETE students outperformed sport science students in terms of the “instruction” subdimension (also in different stages of study), whereas not in the “student” subdimension. Prior experience in the field of PA is an advantage for high scores only in the “instruction” subdimension. Finally, the study provides first insights into the specificity of PCK in the field of sport science.

Reliability, validity and invariance of the Moral Sensitivity Questionnaire in the China General Social Survey

Moral sensitivity of individuals plays a crucial role in the prediction of moral behavior, but the moral values of Chinese culture are different from the west, and we need a simple way to measure the moral sensitivity of Chinese people. This study puts forward a method for measuring the moral sensitivity of Chinese individuals from the perspective of the levels of the moralization model. The sample in the study 1 included 21,054 Chinese persons aged between 18 and 95. Through exploratory factor analysis, we established a model of the scale and verified the stability and invariance of the model across gender and age through confirmatory factor analysis and multi-group confirmatory factor analysis. Study 2 included a sample of 1951 primary, middle and high school students between the ages of 8 and 19. By means of confirmatory factor analysis, we again verified the factor structure of this questionnaire, and used a series of moral emotion questionnaires (Three Domains of Disgust Scale, Gratitude Questionnaire, Dispositional Positive Emotion Scales, Dispositional Greed Scale) to verify the structural validity. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that the goodness-of-fit indices fits well. The multi-group confirmatory factor analysis suggested that configural, metric, scalar, and error variance invariance holds across genders and age groups. The results of the latent mean difference test showed that the latent mean scores were comparable between genders and age groups. The results of correlational analysis show that the scale has a high structural validity. In conclusion, the results of this study showed that the moral sensitivity scale has high reliability and validity in Chinese people.

An Investigation of the Pedagogical Content Knowledge across German Preservice (Physical Education) Teachers

Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is of critical importance to Physical Education (PE), since teaching PE is fundamentally distinct from teaching other subjects in many significant ways. Despite the importance of PCK, research on PCK in German speaking countries is still at the beginning. Against this backdrop, the current study explores the extent to which PCK is a specific professional feature across German students aiming for a teaching degree in PE or not. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 762 students to explore potential differences in relation to teacher education (TE) programs (PETE students n = 431, TE students n = 331). Measurement invariance (MI) between the groups was carried out using multigroup confirmatory factor analysis models to ensure latent mean scores can be compared meaningfully. The progressive evaluation of MI confirms that it is possible to measure the PCK (scalar) equivalently across PETE and TE students. PETE students outperformed TE students in both PCK subdimensions, also in different stages of the study. The study provides evidence for the “professional knowledge” and “qualification hypothesis” within PETE programs.