Late Seventeenth Century Research Articles

Megan Kaes Long. Hearing Homophony

A consistent problem in the analysis of changing musical technique is the temptation to apply anachronistic methods simply because they are well understood, or to measure the nascent style with tools designed for the mature form. This is especially the case when considering the development of tonal harmony, where the use of harmonic analysis well suited to common-practice music runs the risk of seeing earlier technique as an imperfect realisation of the later style: all roads lead to Beethoven! Hearing Homophony by Megan Kaes Long seeks to avoid this snare by taking a strictly circumscribed body of repertoire from the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries and examining it through the lens of expectation. In doing so, she demonstrates how the combined effect of this repertoire’s typical features conspires to produce an expectation of tonal resolution, even if this resolution is not yet completely functional in harmonic terms…

The life and death of confidentiality: a historical analysis of the flows of patient information

Health data can contain sensitive information. People who consult a doctor seek help on issues that matter to them: they typically expect some form of confidentiality. However, the notion and practices of confidentiality have changed dramatically over time. In this article, we trace the history of confidentiality in the Danish healthcare system, which has one of the world’s most integrated patient information infrastructures. Building on an analysis of legal and political documents dating back to the late seventeenth century, we show that confidentiality originated as a social phenomenon that helped build trust in healthcare professionals and gradually developed into an idiom of citizens rights. Lately, confidentiality has given way to more technocratic forms of data protection. As the political, legal and technological reality, which the idea of confidentiality once referred to, has radically changed, we argue that confidentiality has become what Ulrik Beck has called a ‘zombie category’—a notion that lives on even if its content has passed away. If confidentiality has become a zombie concept, we suggest it is time to discuss what may take its place so that patient interests are protected in the current political economy of health data.

Clay Tobacco Pipes in Europe from the Late Sixteenth to the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: Geographical and Cultural Contexts

The aim of the article is to present a summary of the history of clay tobacco pipes in Europe and to explore their cultural and geographical context.In post-medieval archaeological sites, clay tobacco pipes are quite common finds. The first evidence of tobacco in Western Europe dates from the late sixteenth century, during the Age of Discovery. The industry of tobacco pipe manufacturing started in the early seventeenth century, and English pipe makers and smokers were the innovators of the new habit and style of smoking. Soon after that, Dutch cities like Amsterdam and Gouda became major centres in producing and selling clay tobacco pipes. Through the Baltic and Mediterranean harbours and then along land routes, tobacco spread across Europe as a product of colonial trade and a new habit of smoking as such. The Thirty Years’ War and Northern Wars played a crucial role in the consumption of tobacco, because soldiers rapidly accepted and spread the new culture of smoking.In the eastern and south-eastern European region, tobacco and pipes appeared in the early seventeenth century. Despite this fact, smoking as an incorrect habit was banned or restricted in Russia and the Ottoman Empire in effect of the rulers’ decisions. Only in the late seventeenth century all the prohibitions of tobacco consumption were lifted. At this time, clay tobacco pipes manufactured by the locals predominated in the regions of Eastern Europe. One-piece tobacco pipes with long stems manufactured by the Dutch and the English were still in use but in smaller quantities than locally produced pipes. These, so often called composite, stub-stemmed, or ‘chibouk’ pipes, were produced in very different shapes and styles. Scarce marked specimen of these pipes and the lack of historical sources show that production was mostly regional. Otherwise, it is not uncommon to discover that some models of or ornaments on the pipes are widespread from the Baltic region to Northern Africa. The history of smoking and its uneven spread across Europe from the late sixteenth to the first half of the nineteenth century were caused by various reasons. The article focuses on the different contexts of this subject: pipe making traditions in the Early Modern times were impacted by critical or indifferent view of religion, political decisions, economical and geographical situation, different art styles, and the like.

Representation, reflection, and self-esteem in the amour pur debate

ABSTRACT This paper focuses on the late seventeenth-century discourse on “pure” or “disinterested love” (amour pur, amour désintéressé). The central claim is that the mystical writers’ critique against amour-propre threatens the system of esteem so that late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century debates around pure love (the so called “amour pur debate” or the “Quietist affair”) cannot be accounted for simply in terms of mysticism; rather, they have a profound impact on the concept of social esteem. The middle term used to link these two aspects (the theological claims and the social questions) is a special theory of cognition defended by the proponents of pure love and strongly opposed by their opponents. The latter argue that the exclusion of self-reflectivity from disinterested love is a dangerous illusion which leads to negative social consequences. Thus, generally speaking, the Quietist affair is linked not only to the history of early modern self and spirituality but also to the forming of modern social values.

The gardens at Raynham and their destruction, c. 1700-1735

: This article examines the development of the landscape of Raynham Hall, Norfolk, England in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, and presents two hitherto unrecognised sketches by William Kent. It argues that Raynham was one of the first places in England where geometric gardens were removed in order to provide a largely open, parkland setting for the mansion. It attributes this innovation to William Kent and suggests that it was associated with Raynham’s status as an early essay in Palladian architecture. Finally, it argues that more scholarly attention should be given to the connections between architectural styles, and modes of lndscape and garden design, in eighteenth-century England.

Protestant Providentialism in the Commonwealth of the Nobles: A critical view on Sarmatism

This study is devoted to providentialism, an element characteristic of Sarmatism – a dominant ideology and culture in the early modern Commonwealth of the nobles. The attachment of special weight to providence’s care of the state and the nobility seems to have been characteristic also of Protestant circles in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century, and therefore the culture of the nobles’ Sarmatism should not be reduced to its late form, dominated as it was by Catholicism in the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

A Vocabulary of the Language Spoken in the Region Formerly Known as Leán y Mulia in Honduras

During the years 1787 and 1788, officials of the Spanish crown began to circulate an order from the king to recompile vocabularies of Spanish colonies in the Philippines and the Americas. In some cases, this meant the copying of old books from the early part of the eighteenth century. However, this royal order also included the translation and recording of vocabularies from as many new languages of the Spanish colonies as possible. In Central America, the translation of a predetermined list of a few hundred Spanish words into local languages of the colony was put into the hands of the University of San Carlos in Guatemala City and the provincial fathers of the Dominican and Franciscan orders. Language instructors were responsible for writing the words of the indigenous languages and their Spanish equivalents, while priests, who were well versed in the languages spoken natively throughout the colony, were to be consulted and responsible for the prompt and precise recording of the translated Spanish terms. Those who recorded the documents were instructed to place the Spanish terms in a column to the left. The respective terms in the indigenous languages were placed in columns to the right. Special instructions were given to the recorders and their consultants to explain the orthography that they used to express these words. It seems that the purpose of this exercise was to satisfy the curiosity of the “empress of Russia” on the matter.1Since the late seventeenth century, Spanish officials began to implement colonial policies aimed at subduing an unconquered region of Honduras they referred to as Leán y Mulia. Today this region comprises the modern departments of Yoro and Atlántida. The Spanish named the inhabitants of Leán y Mulia “Xicaque.” The origins of the term are unknown, but previous scholars have linked Xicaque to the Nahuatl word chicáctic, signifying “rude” or “strong.” Despite its questionable origins, previous scholars who have studied the indigenous peoples of Honduras have consistently remarked that the term Xicaque referred to any “uncivilized” indigenous person of Honduras. It is not certain what the people of Leán y Mulia called themselves; their language is barely documented in any other colonial source. The people of Leán y Mulia were called Xicaque in Spanish sources until 1821 and even after that (Rivera 2015: 5).When the people of Leán y Mulia became subjected to Spanish policies in the seventeenth century, they increasingly demonstrated an increased antagonism to the threat imposed by the Spanish. The foundation of a few settlements by the Spanish in the first half of the eighteenth century was the first attempt to bring together the people of Leán y Mulia under Spanish control. By the mid-part of the eighteenth century, Franciscan missionaries, aided by soldiers of the colony, founded mission settlements where the people of Leán y Mulia were sometimes forced to move. Flight from the missions was common, as were defenses meant to keep the Spanish out. The regular antagonism demonstrated by the people of Leán y Mulia slowly became an act of avoidance after a smallpox pandemic decimated the remaining mission populations (Rivera 2015:110–28).The next section presents an excerpt from the source, closely following the original material with the exception of the added column in English. The original document also included columns for languages called Cabecara and Viceyta; these are not included in the following translation.

The First Draft of Serlio’s Sixth Book and its Arrival in Britain, c. 1700

ABSTRACTThis article explores the provenance of the first draft of Sebastiano Serlio’s sixth book, on dwellings, written in the 1540s. It was acquired by the Avery Library at Columbia University, New York, a century ago and published for the first time in 1978. The article proposes that the manuscript and drawings remained in the vicinity of Paris until the late seventeenth century, when they were mounted and bound into an album that may have been sold by a descendant of Jacques Androuet du Cerceau I, either in Paris or the Netherlands. It goes on to demonstrate that, in the early eighteenth century, the manuscript was owned by Francis Bird, a leading British sculptor of his day, who collaborated with leading architects including Christopher Wren, James Gibbs and, possibly, Nicholas Hawksmoor.

The Secular Enlightenment by Margaret C. Jacob

Reviewed by: The Secular Enlightenment by Margaret C. Jacob Anna Tomaszewska The Secular Enlightenment. By Margaret C. Jacob. (Princeton: Princeton University Press. 2019. Pp. xi, 339. $29.95. ISBN 9780691161327.) The author of the seminal Radical Enlightenment (1981) has proposed another category encapsulating intellectual, social, and political metamorphoses spurred by [End Page 214] the "Age of Enlightenment." In eight chapters that take the reader through Western European and trans-Atlantic spaces and times spanning from the late seventeenth century until the 1790s, Margaret Jacob pictures the emergence of "the secular world" in which human life would increasingly center on the here and now without "a necessary reference to a transcendent order" (pp. 1–2). For Jacob, secularization does not imply a complete repudiation of religion, but redefining its meaning as a cultural practice, an approach traceable to The Religious Ceremonies and Customs (1723–43) by Jean Frederick Bernard and Bernard Picart. The secular Enlightenment turned toward science under Newton's auspices, witnessed budding sensitivity to social injustice and inequalities, criticized the alliance between church and state, and brought the development of the university culture. Clandestine literature and new forms of sociability, practiced in masonic lodges, city clubs, and cafés, created a global space of shared ideas and ideals: equality, cosmopolitanism, universal brotherhood. Inventions, such as that of the pendulum clock, prompted changes in the perception of time dedicated more and more to this-worldly activities. The secular ways became manifest in the lives of countless travelers, publishers, industrialists, academics, scientists, and poets—both minor figures, some of them female, and the leading protagonists of the epoch. France prepared the ground for the outbreak of its 1789 revolution: the deism, materialism, and atheism of the philosophes provided a setting in which the absolute monarchy and priestly privilege could be challenged. The Scottish enlighteners favored pragmatic topics: taxes, commerce, and how to counteract poverty, which would set the background for the development of capitalism and the conception of historical progress. Germany staged the advocacy of secular ethics and politics, the publication of subversive writings attacking organized religion, conflicts between rationalist philosophers and state authorities, and finally the resurgence of Spinozism that constituted the naturalist underpinnings for "a universal humanism" (p. 197). The Italians, overcoming tensions between the Catholic Church and the enlightened values, contributed to political economy with theories of money and trade, and to political theory by laying the foundations for a constitutional republic that would later serve as a model for the Americans. The way was also paved for abolishing torture, slavery, and eventually death penalty. Social and political unrest accompanied the demise of the Enlightenment, which set in motion the "creation of the democratic citizen," necessitating a "personal transformation … often transgressive of customs and mores" (p. 236), particularly those related to family life. The Enlightenment, which persisted in the writings of the Romantics, brought along "the secular" that "had become all pervasive" (p. 264). Jacob's fascinatingly many-layered and multifaceted account of the Enlightenment unfolds the extent to which its ideas have shaped our times, yet occasionally her usage of '"enlightened" slips from merely descriptive into normative. Jacob does not side with the proponents of the "religious Enlightenment"—the claim that religious controversies could have triggered the secularizing impulse (Jeffrey D. Burson) or that the "Age of Reason" made possible new forms of belief (David Sorkin). Her allegiance stays with those who, like Peter Gay, link the Enlightenment with the [End Page 215] secular. However, although Jacob's account expresses attachment to the secular values which have come to be associated with liberal democratic culture that some believe to prevail nowadays, it also perpetuates the view of those critics of the Enlightenment who would see in it a movement of dissent from Christianity. Anna Tomaszewska Jagellonian University in Krakow Copyright © 2022 The Catholic University of America Press

Down the Warpath to the Cedars: Indians' First Battles in the Revolution by Mark R. Anderson

Reviewed by: Down the Warpath to the Cedars: Indians' First Battles in the Revolution by Mark R. Anderson Loren Michael Mortimer (bio) Down the Warpath to the Cedars: Indians' First Battles in the Revolution mark r. anderson University of Oklahoma Press, 2021 306 pp. At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, the Continental Army prepared to invade Canada, and the British military government took concurrent measures to defend the province. Patriot and Loyalist leaders alike recognized the strategic importance of the Indigenous confederation known as the Seven Nations of Canada. Composed of eight sovereign Native American towns along the upper St. Lawrence River, these multiethnic communities guarded key river confluences connecting Canada to the rebellious Anglo-American settler colonies to the south. In the military contest for Canada, the Seven Nations could tip the balance of power in favor of the Patriots or the Crown. Likewise, the Seven Nations feared the despoliation of their lands amid the crossfire of a civil [End Page 599] war within the British Empire. As historian Mark R. Anderson shows in Down the Warpath to the Cedars, the Seven Nations proved decisive in the defeat of the Continental Army at the Battle of the Cedars in late May 1776. Although historians on both sides of the US-Canada border have largely overlooked or intentionally disremembered the significance of the Cedars, Anderson offers a timely intervention recovering histories of Indigenous autonomy and racialized violence during the American Revolution, as well as the affair's aftermaths in Native American council houses, Patriot assemblies, and imperial corridors of power. In the summer of 1775, the Seven Nations of Canada had thrived in proximity to European settler population centers along the St. Lawrence River for more than a century. Although the Seven Nations had intimately entangled connections of trade and kinship with the Haudenosaunee Six Nations Iroquois, it remained a politically autonomous Indigenous polity. The Seven Nations traced their origins to Catholic converts who relocated to Francophone mission communities during the late seventeenth century. Between 1701 and 1754, these mission towns gradually coalesced into a confederation rooted in shared connections to the St. Lawrence River, Catholicism, extended family networks, and mutual defense. Although steadfast allies to the French before 1759, each constituent community maintained their sovereignty and distinctive cultures. The Seven Nations Council convened at Kahnawake, the largest town with a decidedly Mohawk-Iroquois demographic composition. But this diverse confederation included Hurons from Wendake, the Wabanaki peoples from Odanak and Wolinâk, Mohawks and Nipissings from Kanesatake, Mohawks from Akwesasne, and Oneidas and Onondagas from Oswegatchie. With careful attention to multidimensional Indigenous politics at the confederation, village, and factional levels, Anderson argues that Native Americans created a "strategic environment" at the Battle of the Cedars that aligns with Ojibwe historian Michael Witgen's concept of an "infinity of nations" (1). Indeed, the framework of an "infinity of nations" proves apposite for this study, particularly as political affiliations remained fluid for colonists and Indigenous peoples alike during the early phases of the conflict. Despite the military invasion of their homelands during the American Revolution, the Seven Nations of Canada largely avoided the internecine warfare and dispossession endured by larger and better-known Indigenous polities like the Six Nations Haudenosaunee. Yet the author notes that in "contrast to the reasonably well developed Six Nations Revolutionary War [End Page 600] narrative, the Seven Nations of Canada lack significant historical treatment for the era. The Cedars and its 1775 precedents clearly reveal the complexity of Laurentian Indian politics" (155). While Anderson observed that the Seven Nations "were far from a unified polity" (4), Native American emphasis on local autonomy and factional consensus within councils rendered their confederation no more or less united than the Six Nations or the ad hoc Patriot delegations at the Continental Congress during the summer of 1775. Given Patriot sentiments among Anglo-American colonists in Montreal as well as disaffection with British rule by factions within the Seven Nations, Canada's participation in the rebellion remained an open political question for British officials, Loyalists, Patriots, and Native Americans alike. To make sense of an ethnic and political milieu that defied nationality or a strictly Patriot vs...

"A Spirituall Song of Submission": The Eikon Basilike, Prayer and Poetry in a Seventeenth-Century Royalist Miscellany

"A Spirituall Song of Submission":The Eikon Basilike, Prayer and Poetry in a Seventeenth-Century Royalist Miscellany Francesca Cioni In its textual and material history the Eikon Basilike tells the story of the textual and material cultures of the loyal Royalists who composed, produced, read, and shared it. Despite official suppression by Parliament, the Eikon appeared in dozens of different imprints between Charles' death and the Restoration, in various forms and formats, for specific readerly uses: folios featuring the full text with lavish engravings; abridged duodecimos for pocket reference; versions digesting the Eikon into commonplaces, advice, or rhyming devotional verse.1 The variety of such printed forms bespeaks the broad and wide-ranging appeal and use of the Eikon by late-seventeenth century readers. The proliferation of scribal copies that circulated more easily without attracting notice of parliamentary censors offers an intimate glimpse into not only readers' use of and relationship to the text, but also the operation of the literary, political, religious, and social circles through which the Eikon circulated. MS Eng 625, a copy of Eikon Basilike held at the Houghton Library, is one of such text.2 A substantial portion of the Eikon is included, closely following the 1649 edition (a copy of which is held at the University of Illinois); the volume also includes several printed engraved portraits of Charles I, and a handwritten prayer of contrition. The composition of this manuscript Eikon represents an act of pious commemoration of the deposed monarch; tracing its compilation can tell us much about the reception of the Eikon in the late-seventeenth century, and its role in establishing Charles' reputation and the textual practices of Royalist loyalism. [End Page 3] But the volume tells another story. If we rotate the codex 180° and open it from the other end, we find a miscellany of original religious, commendatory, and philosophical verse, comprising an ambitious range of styles: acrostics and anagrams; hymns and songs; and long philosophical poems on human sins and divine mercy. Three prayers that begin the volume, collected under the heading "Orationes miscellane," suggest their writer's political and ecclesiastical loyalism (including the prayers "For ye king" and "For ye church"). These are followed by a collection of apparently autograph poems: "The Returne," a song; an occasional poem on the poet's recovery from smallpox; an anagram and an acrostic to the collection's apparent patron Mary Midmore; a "Spirituall Song of Submission" a version of George Herbert's "Submission"; and four long poems: "The Review," "The Grand Deceit, and the Great Evill under the Sun," "Divine Mercies Miracles," and "Gods method in curing Sinners." The variety of poetic forms gathered in the miscellany not only serve to demonstrate their author's literary skill of their author, but also perform, in their diverse ways, his religious and political loyalty to a monarchy and a church recently restored. From the relatively direct expression of royalist and Anglican beliefs in his prayers and longer theological verse, to the verbal and literary dissection of his patron and of Herbert's verse in the praise poems and "Song of Submission," Shirley's verse gives textual form to these loyalties. The volume's reproduction of the Eikon Basilike and assembly of images of Charles are acts of political loyalty; but it also materializes pious devotion in its reformulation of scripture, and social relationships in its praise poems to Mary Midmore. These social, textual, religious, and political acts are performed through diverse means of reformulation of particular texts and figures: its collator Drew Shirley and its apparent patron Mary Mid-more as well as George Herbert and Charles I, whose works, together with the Bible, form the volume's source material. Drew Shirley, whose name appears on the first leaf of the Eikon, and in whose hand the miscellany seems to be written, is not a prominent historical figure. He is not published in print, nor is he politically active, and he is only recorded in this manuscript and in records of his matriculation at Exeter College, Oxford in 1656, his will, and his burial.3 The latter both occur at Chiddingly, Sussex in 1707, in the same village where one...

Mountain Rivers, Mountain Roads: Transport in Southwest China, 1700-1850 by Nanny Kim (review).

Reviewed by: Mountain Rivers, Mountain Roads: Transport in Southwest China, 1700–1850 by Nanny Kim C. Patterson Giersch (bio) Mountain Rivers, Mountain Roads: Transport in Southwest China, 1700–1850 By Nanny Kim. Leiden: Brill, 2020. Pp. Xxvi + 622. With swift rivers and rugged mountains, the Southwest borderlands were considered by Chinese to be a remote, alien, and perhaps inaccessible region. Before 1700, there was little trade with the region. The eighteenth century saw a remarkable transformation. Millions of settlers arrived from eastern China—often violently displacing indigenous communities. By the 1750s, annual exports from the Southwest borderlands to eastern China were almost 200,000 tons of Sichuan rice, 6,000 tons of Yunnan copper and Guizhou zinc, and vast quantities of medicines. Imports included large volumes of cotton and salt. Given the cost of overcoming difficult terrain, how did such robust long-distance trade emerge? In this learned opus, Nanny Kim explains the evolution of the transport industry. The result is a sometimes-stunning peek into the technological, organizational, and social innovations that enabled the Southwest border-land's integration into eastern China's wider trade networks. The book's first part looks at shipping in the Sichuan Basin, defined as the rivers that flow into the Upper Yangzi. The book then examines overland transportation from Yunnan and Guizhou to the Sichuan Basin in its second part. In both cases, Kim finds "a qualitative transformation in the transport systems," and her carefully-conceived chapters trace those transformations from the late seventeenth through the nineteenth century (p. 484). First, she sets the scene with the in-migration of settlers, first to Sichuan and then to Yunnan after the imperial government slaughtered indigenous communities (ch. 1). The migrants became the producers, consumers, and labor who made commerce possible. Eighteenth-century migrants encountered the Yangzi's famous Three Gorges stretch, shaped by torrential monsoons that sent landslides tumbling down mountainsides. Deposited into rivers, the debris produced deep holes, swirling currents, and shoals (ch. 2). As settlers opened new lands, they increased the flow of silt into the rivers, an impact intensified by the era's changing climate (ch. 6). To adapt, Sichuan boats were made sturdier for dangerous downriver trips, yet light for the intense upriver hauling. Employing wide-ranging sources, Kim reveals how dynamic technological innovations, from rigging and steering to capacity, produced the trusty mayangzi, a swift-water freighter with watertight holds for valuable cargo (ch. 3). In addition, Kim charts how private or local state interests pursued river engineering and new institutions to improve navigation infrastructure (ch. 6). Commanding, piloting, or sometimes simply dragging the boats were [End Page 284] diverse professionals, and the book provides an extraordinary glimpse of river society (chs. 4, 5). Skippers owned their boats and earned community respect. Pilots were skilled mariners, specializing in handling tricky rapids. Permanent crewmen were masters of steering and tracking. By stitching together data on riverine livelihoods, Kim argues that—contrary to stereo-type—no jobs were unskilled. Though deeply stratified, river society was not a world of "uncouth male drifters" but "a society of resourceful and well-organized men and women" (p. 229). Organizations included skippers' and trackers' guilds as well as families using multiple strategies to forge a living from the waterways. Kim then shifts to overland transport, often by mule train, from Yunnan and Guizhou to the Sichuan Basin (ch. 7). She has uncovered the important routes while projecting, in a well-reasoned argument, that eighteenth-century trade volumes were shockingly high—perhaps 20,000 tons annually on the busiest route. Intricate documents on the mint metal transport system reveal that state demand for copper and zinc sparked transformative growth. Responsible for transporting metals within budget, officials invested modestly in roads, bridges, and river engineering (ch. 8). The story is also one of private interests, as the merchants who invested in infrastructure had a greater long-term impact than the government (ch. 9). The evolution of the Southwest borderland's high-volume transport was sparked by the state, as James Lee argues in Zhongguo xinan bianjiang de shehui jingji, 1250–1850 (Renmin, 2012). Yet at the same time, private merchants, animal breeders, and muleteers developed the professional...

АНГЛІЙСЬКИЙ КЛАСИЦИЗМ КІНЦЯ XVII – ПОЧАТКУ XVIII СТОЛІТТЯ: ВІД Дж. МІЛЬТОНА ДО А.-Е. ШЕФТСБЕРІ

The article focuses on the special features of the development of English classicism in the late seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth centuries. This period demonstrates new achievements in the logic of the development of such an important area of humanities as classicism; formed as an independent phenomenon between the late sixteenth to the early eighteenth centuries as an independent, trend it was markedly different from general European tendencies. Since the author of the article believes that the first period in the development of English classicism ended with the publication of “An Essays of Dramatic Poesy” (1668) by J. Dryden, it seems of great relevance to analyze the humaniatic views both in the “Dryden era” and in the early 18th century. The role of theoretical developments by J.Milton and A.-E.Sheftesbury, who outlined a specific stage of humanitarian knowledge in the English lands in general, is recreated through a number of fundamentally new approaches to both the theory of drama and attempts to analyse art and artistic creativity at the intersection of several sciences. This research method, which today can be qualified as a "dialogue of sciences", influenced the new perception of the scientific potential of ethics and psychology by his contemporaries. Today, in the context of the relevance of cultural studies, research within the context of which different humanities “intersect” is, firstly, highly valued as an example of culturological approach, and secondly, is defined by the concepts of “interscientific” or “interdisciplinary”, since there are still terminological differences among specialists in this regard. In addition to all of the above-mentioned facts, A.-A. Shaftesbury began to systematize the scientific research of his predecessors, introducing new names to the community of English classicists. He also studied the problem of the sublime, which the researchers of the time thought to be extremely important, since it was considered as heroic consistent and, accordingly, could influence the deepening of ideas about the tragic and dramatic. The author emphasises the fact of expanding the conceptual and categorical apparatus for the study of aesthetic and artistic issues. Key words. Classicism, Neoplatonism, sensualism, aesthetic and artistic aspect, “Greek tragedy”, “dialogue of sciences”, “artistic genius”, “virtuoso”.

"Places of Great Trust": Government Men and Slave Trade Networks in the English Atlantic before 1698

This article argues that conflicts and competition over the form of English slave trading in the Atlantic world during the late seventeenth century elicited the use of a common language of government corruption. Contrary to common historiographical assumptions that government officials could pursue private investments through their public duties without controversy in the English colonies during this period, contested slave trade networks both in the Caribbean and Carolina reveal that colonists actively applied typical English notions of entrusted power to police the borders of acceptable government conduct. Whether in the African slave trade or in the trade in Indigenous captives, monopolies and other regulatory regimes required the active support of government officials on the ground. As a result, these officials became the primary vectors for undermining slave trade regulations and promoting smuggling. Evidence of the extent to which government officials were complicit in illicit slave trading survives in the archive primarily because English observers in Atlantic ports chose to protest such conduct using a recognized metropolitan language of corruption.

Jansenism and England: Moral Rigorism across the Confessions

Jansenism and England: Moral Rigorism across the Confessions

Ceremonial at the Court of Frederick the Great in 1748: Reflections from the Russian Diplomat Hermann Carl von Keyserlingk

The document from the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire published in this article is an original diplomatic relation in German, compiled 2 (13) January 1748 by the minister plenipotentiary in Berlin count Hermann Karl von Keyserlingk and its translation into Russian, made in the College of Foreign Affairs as soon as it was received. The document was a response to the Empress Elisabeth’ circular rescript of 8 December 1747, addressed to her representatives in Europe, which required them to send detailed information from the city of their residence about the peculiarities of the diplomatic ceremonial and informal communication between the crowned heads and diplomats of the first and second ranks. Keyserlingk went beyond the instructions he had received. He did not only provide the Empress with vital information about the Berlin court, but also demonstrated, how since the late seventeenth century the electors of Brandenburg (from 1701 onwards also Prussian kings) had sought to systematise the norms and practices of court and diplomatic ceremonial and what changes had taken place with the ascension to the throne of each new monarch. A comparison of the German original of the relation and its Russian translation sheds light on some aspects of professional terminology in the field of international relations in the mid-eighteenth century.

Samuel Wesley and the Tory Crisis of Piety, 1685–1720

William Gibson is Professor of Ecclesiastical History and Director of the Oxford Centre for Methodism and Church History at Oxford Brookes University and a prolific scholar of late seventeenth- and eighteenth-century English religious history. This study of Samuel Wesley, father of John and Charles, sets him in the context of the tumultuous forty years of what Gibson describes as ‘the long Glorious Revolution’. These years saw the Roman Catholic James II's removal, a first step away from an English Anglican confessional state by granting toleration to Dissenters, a failed attempt to ‘comprehend’ moderate Dissenters in the Church of England, initiatives to improve that Church's pastoral effectiveness and the nation's godliness, and the succession of a German Lutheran king, all against the background of war against France and political unrest at home. They were challenging times for High Church Anglicans like Samuel Wesley senior.Treating Samuel Wesley as a significant figure in his own right, Gibson illustrates how an early eighteenth-century small-town clergyman, apparently far from centres of power, might be caught up in national issues that powerfully impacted on his beliefs and religious practice, his daily and family life, and political allegiances. Gibson's familiarity with the period has enabled him to find new manuscript sources illustrating Wesley's close involvement with these issues, and throwing new light on his well-known difficulties with his Epworth parishioners, his imprisonment for debt, and the vicissitudes of his marriage to Susanna. This helps us to appreciate Wesley in a broader context.Gibson depicts Samuel Wesley's life as a series of crises, for others as well as himself. After discussing why this son and grandson of Dissenters conformed to the Church of England in 1684, he considers the personal complexities for Wesley of the national events of the years 1688–95. His Oxford college, Exeter, was threatened with a Roman Catholic takeover. When ordained deacon in August 1688, his oath of allegiance was to James II, but five months later when ordained priest, he rejected his oath to James in favour of William and Mary, while Susanna, his wife of three months, remained loyal to James. He was dismissed from his curacy, disliked being a naval chaplain, and, with a growing family, was short of money. Aristocratic influence and royal patronage secured his appointment in 1695 as rector of the remote Lincolnshire town of Epworth. He became a reforming incumbent, implementing, in consultation with the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge (SPCK), the then leading Anglican ginger group, contemporary strategies to raise moral standards and deepen lay piety. Unfortunately, he alienated many of Epworth's leading residents. Additionally, he was a poor financial manager, and his High Church Tory political sympathies alienated Whig opponents, contributing to his imprisonment for debt, and raised the suspicions of his new Whig-sympathizing bishop, William Wake. However, he had a strong local and national Tory High Church support network, which rallied to handsomely pay his debts. Wesley regretted Wake's eirenic attitude to Dissenters, and lack of support for his initiatives to enforce moral and spiritual discipline in Epworth. Nationally, Wesley emerged briefly as a leading figure in the tumultuous events of Dr Sacheverell's impeachment and the Church's 1710 Convocation, which sought to exclude Dissenters from public life and close their academies and strengthen the Church's spiritual and moral discipline. Alongside this Gibson also explores the vicissitudes of Samuel and Susanna's tempestuous marriage in terms of contemporary understandings of ‘passive obedience’, duty, family government, and rights of conscience, as well as their experience of a poltergeist at the rectory in 1716–17 in the context of contemporary understanding of the supernatural and George I's recent succession.This is an excellent and sympathetic study of Samuel Wesley's High Church world. However, it perhaps oversimplifies the polarity of High Church and Low Church Anglicans and their respective identification with Tories and Whigs. Some Whig bishops, including William Wake, were High Churchmen, if not as high as Samuel Wesley. Gibson himself notes that the leading Whig bishop, Gilbert Burnet, loaned Wesley £100 to assist with his financial embarrassment, and that Wesley commended Burnet's reforming Discourse of the Pastoral Care and the sermons of the leading Dissenter, Richard Baxter.Eleven pertinent contemporary illustrations are included and a short appendix by Peter Forsaith discusses images of Samuel Wesley, including that featured on the book's cover, identified as an unknown artist's portrait of Wesley now in the Wrotham Park Collection. There is also an extensive bibliography and index.

Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės egzuliantų integracijos problemos XVIII a.: Smolensko vaivadijos atvejis

PROBLEMS OF INTEGRATION OF EXILES IN THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA: THE CASE OF SMOLENSK VOIVODESHIP The exiles of Smolensk Voivodeship, who moved from Moscow territories occupied by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the late seventeenth century and established in currently ethnic part of Lithuania, in the eighteenth century were faced with the issues of socio-economic integration, relocation of institutions of self-government and preservation of their functionality. Although the Sejm of the Commonwealth of Both Nations through the Constitutions put considerable efforts to legitimize the disposition of property intended for the exiles, and ultimately recognize it as private property, this had to be done quite periodically (1699, 1703, 1717, 1775, and 1786). Similarly, the Sejm of the Commonwealth of Both Nations was forced to constantly remind about the need to ensure the activities of the institutions of self-government of the exiles in Smolensk Voivodeship, and to legitimize the changed locations of their activities (1667, 1736, 1764, 1768, and 1791). State possessions in the elderships of Vilnius and Trakai voivodeships and in the economies of Alytus and Grodno were distributed as socio-economic support to the exiles in Smolensk Voivodeship. According to the administrative territorial division of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, these possessions were concentrated in several powiats (counties), namely Grodno (Ožė and Perloja elderships), Kaunas (Alvitas or Paširvinčiai elderships) and Ukmergė (Obeliai and Utena elderships). However, in the second half of the eighteenth century, the exiles of Smolensk Voivodeship managed to acquire real estate in Vilnius, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, especially after the abolition of the Jesuit order in 1773 when the property of the order was put on sale. In the period of 1667–1777, institutions of self-government of the exiles in Smolensk Voivodeship operated in Vilnius, the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and this Vilnius period provided them with additional opportunities, as it first increased the political significance of the Smolensk Voivodeship dietines (sejmiki). However, the political combinations of Antoni Tyzenhaus, the treasurer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which reflected the position of the royal court, as well as economic and political interests, impacted the dietines of the exiles of Smolensk Voivodeship, which since 1777 moved to Alytus in the territory of Trakai Voivodeship (dietine of Smolensk Voivodeship) and Žiežmariai (dietine of Starodub powiat). The study revealed, that in the eight decade of the eighteenth century attempts were made to strengthen Alytus as the administrative centre of Alytus economy, and radical infrastructural transformations were implemented. Analysis of the description of the new buildings erected in Alytus in 1780–1783 and the map of Alytus economy in 1781 revealed, that the exiles in Smolensk Voivodeship were provided with modern public infrastructure, which contributed to more efficient activities of Smolensk land court, Chancellery and the dietine. Keywords: exiles, powiat courts, dietines, Smolensk Voivodeship, Starodub powiat, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the eighteenth century.

A ‘Thirst for Torment’ vs Suffering ‘for Righteousness’: The Polemics of Old Believer Sacrifice at the Turn of the Era

This article describes Old Believer polemics about sacrifice via self-immolation and other forms of ‘self-inflicted death’ between the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The main object of condemnation by the Russian state and church authorities was the Old Believer system of sacralising one’s own sufferings (the creation and distribution of related narratives, appeals to popular religiosity, and the veneration of new martyrs). The author examines Old Believer writings and decrees, admonitions, and texts created by the authorities as parts of one discursive field and concludes that rational methods for combating Old Believer martyrs were consolidated in the Petrine era at the conceptual level in order to preserve the taxable population. Feofan (Prokopovich) offered the most original explanation for the widespread Old Believer veneration of new martyrs by interpreting it as bliss at being ‘persecuted for righteousness’ (1722): this interpretation was the basis for his admonition On the Invalidity of Unauthorised Suffering. The active disciplinary intervention of the authorities in the sacrificial discourse and the misinterpretation of self-sacrifice that spread among the Old Believers led their leaders to speak of piety as an indispensable condition for salvation. The desire of various participants in the discourse to speak on this topic generated, if not to a specific “language”, then a whole set of experiences embodied in genetically different rhetoric.

Faith in Drugs: The Material and Immaterial Effects of Medication in the Early Modern French Catholic World

Abstract This article explores a set of medications, called les remèdes des pauvres, that were distributed from the late seventeenth century onward to the sick poor of rural France and to French missions abroad. Although it was eventually absorbed into the French state as a form of royally sponsored poor relief, this drug distribution network began in 1670 as a distinctly ecclesiastical endeavour, aimed at allowing parish priests, missionaries, and charitable laywomen to imitate the healing ministry of Christ and his apostles. While critics saw them as peddling a dangerous chemical drug in poor villages, their promoters argued that the active charity involved in distributing the remedies, and even the faith placed in their effectiveness by the sick, played an important role in effecting their cures. As such they offer a useful perspective on the shifting boundaries between medical charity and medical commerce, as well as between natural and supernatural healing.