Late-season Rainfall Research Articles

NUTRITION AND IRRIGATION: TOWARDS A PRACTICAL SOLUTION FOR CHERRY CRACKING

Fruit cracking in sweet cherries is an economically significant problem for growers world-wide and is associated with late season rainfall. Building resilience into fruit from an early stage in order to withstand rapid excess water entry without cracking, is important. This trial assessed calcium (Ca) levels and fruit characteristics of sweet cherry fruit produced under three different irrigation volumes, following on previous research suggesting low irrigation increased cracking susceptibility. In the present study, higher irrigation volumes also resulted in reduced cracking levels at harvest. Given the structural role of Ca in plant cells and that Ca is xylem mobile, it was hypothesised that higher irrigation volumes may favour the uptake and incorporation of Ca into fruit cells. While Ca concentration increased with increased irrigation levels at harvest (when cracking occurs) Ca concentration was not significantly different between treatments. Both the high and low irrigation treatments resulted in fruit with increased firmness and skin puncture force compared to the medium (commercial orchard practice) irrigation level. This provided information about building resilience to cracking in sweet cherry fruit, highlighted the importance of both nutrition and irrigation in managing risk and applies the knowledge to provide solutions to a very real dilemma. The findings will be important for the development of future cherry fruit cracking management strategies, which may need to be considered early, rather than later during fruit growth.

Signatures of Tibetan Plateau heating on Indian summer monsoon rainfall variability

Despite recent challenges, conventional wisdom has held that heating over the Tibetan Plateau leads to increased Indian summer monsoon rainfall via enhancement of cross‐equatorial circulation aloft, and a concurrent strengthening of both the Somali Jet and westerly winds that bring moisture to southern India. We show that such heating, quantified by monthly estimates of moist static energy in the atmosphere just above the surface, correlates with summer monsoon rainfall, but only in the early (20 May to 15 June) and late (September 1 to 15 October) monsoon season. Correlations during the main monsoon season (15 June to 31 August) are small and insignificant. The positive correlations with early and late monsoon season, however, allow for heating over Tibet to modulate as much as ~30% of the total rainfall. Furthermore, we demonstrate that heating over Tibet is independent of the El Niño Southern Oscillation, so that together they explain a substantial portion of variability in the early and late season rainfall, providing potential predictability. These links may also explain the wet conditions over India during early Holocene time and provide a quantitative link between a rise of Tibet and stronger Somali Jet.

Annual chronology and climate response in Abies guatemalensis Rehder (Pinaceae) in Central America

The continued expansion of dendroclimatology into Mesoamerica requires the identification and evaluation of species whose rings can be precisely dated and then statistically compared with precipitation and temperature variability in order to make inferences about past climate. Here, we establish the basis for using Abies guatemalensis Rehder (Pinaceae) for climate reconstruction in Central America. Annual crossdating in this montane species is demonstrated at high-elevation sites in the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes in western Guatemala. We find that ring width is most strongly influenced by early growing season moisture conditions, controlled by late dry season rainfall, and negatively correlated with growing season temperature. Our chronology is also significantly negatively correlated with eastern tropical Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies. Our confirmation of annual chronology and the identification of a climatic signal in this species now allow its use in local and regional paleoclimate reconstructions, as well as ecological studies.

Crop load manipulation and fruit cracking in sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.)

Yield loss from rain-induced fruit cracking is a perpetual risk associated with the production of sweet cherries, and is difficult to manage due to the unpredictability of fruit responses to late season rainfall. The aim of this five-year study was to investigate the relationship between fruit crop load and incidence of cracking. The results showed a negative correlation between crop load and incidence of fruit cracking, and it was found in both natural and manipulated crop load trials for all varieties studied and in all seasons assessed. The effect of crop load on final cracking levels are deter- mined post cell division. Results from this study showed that fruit width was positively correlated with cuticular cracking but, contrary to what has been purported in literature, no relationship between concentration of soluble sugars or firmness with the incidence of cracking was found. This study has confirmed that crop load should be a major consideration in orchard practices in developing strategies to manage fruit cracking.

Rainfall in arid zones: possible effects of climate change on the population ecology of blue cranes

Summary 1. Understanding the demographic mechanisms through which climate affects population dynamics is critical for predicting climate change impacts on biodiversity. In arid habitats, rainfall is the most important forcing climatic factor. Rainfall in arid zones is typically variable and unpredictable, and we therefore hypothesise that its seasonality and variability may be as important for the population ecology of arid zone animals as its total amount. 2. Here we examine the effect of these aspects of rainfall on reproduction and age specific survival of blue cranes (Anthropoides paradiseus Lichtenstein) in the semi‐arid eastern Nama Karoo, South Africa. We then use our results to predict the effect of changes in rainfall at the population level. 3. Using combined capture‐mark‐resighting and dead‐recovery models, we estimated average survival of cranes to be 0·53 in their first year, 0·73 in their second and third year, and 0·96 for older birds. 4. We distinguished between three seasons, based on the blue cranes’ breeding phenology: early breeding season, late breeding season and nonbreeding season. Cranes survived better with increasing rainfall during the late but not early breeding season. Based on road counts and success of monitored nests, reproduction was positively associated with rainfall during the early but not late breeding season. 5. A matrix population model predicted that population growth rate would increase with increasing rainfall. A stochastic analysis showed that variation in early breeding season rainfall increased population growth slightly due to the nonlinear relationship between rainfall and reproduction. This effect was opposed by the effect of variation in late breeding season rainfall on survival and overall, variation in rainfall had a negligible effect on population growth. 6. Our results allow predictions to be made for a range of climate‐change scenarios. For example, a shift in seasonality with drier springs but wetter summers would likely decrease reproduction but increase survival, with little overall effect on population growth.

Using Soil-Applied Herbicides in Glyphosate-Resistant Soybeans along the Texas Gulf Coast

Field studies were conducted at four locations over a 2-year period to evaluate the utility of soil-applied herbicides and glyphosate timing for weed control and soybean yield. Pendimethalin,S-metolachlor plus metribuzin, and flufenacet plus metribuzin were applied pre-emergence (PRE) alone or followed by glyphosate applied early postemergence (EPOST), late postemergence (LPOST), or EPOST plus LPOST. Soil-applied herbicides or glyphosate alone failed to control (<45%) broadleaf signalgrass in 2003 due to late-season rainfall, which accounted for a late flush of growth. In 2004, soil-applied herbicides alone controlled 79–100% broadleaf signalgrass, whereas glyphosate alone or in combination with soil-applied herbicides controlled at least 99%. Barnyardgrass and tall waterhemp were controlled at least 87% with soil-applied herbicides alone and at least 95% when glyphosate was used alone or in combination with a soil-applied herbicide. Soybean yield varied, but at only one location did herbicide treatments produce higher yields than the untreated check. Under low to moderate weed pressure, the use of a soil-applied herbicide followed by glyphosate failed to increase net returns over soil-applied herbicides alone.

Appearance and disappearance of a weedy orchid,Epipactis helleborine

Mark-recapture techniques applied to individual orchid plants and to their populations can further our understanding of the factors affecting establishment and survival. Studies need not be limited only to species at risk of extinction. Common or even introduced species may be tracked to determine which variables most impact behaviour and to develop effective conservation management techniques. Only long tracking periods are likely to intercept critical stochastic events. A 20-year study (1985–2004) of the introduced orchid,Epipactis helleborine, in Gatineau Park, Quebec, Canada, has provided insight into the behaviour of this weedy species. We have marked 1591 plants over this period, 62% of which emerged only once. High late-season rainfall had a positive effect on emergence patterns whereas spring drought had a negative impact. The annual emergent population declined from a maximum of 315 plants in 1987 to 23 plants in 2001 following a severe drought in 1991. Twenty-seven plants, all but one of which grow in the vicinity of a large tree, re-emerged after prolonged absences of 7 to 18 years. A group of 15 plants that have shown complex patterns of re-appearance over the last 10 years also encircle this tree while 8 other plants with similar patterns of re-appearance but have not been seen since 1994 were distributed elsewhere in the site. We postulate that the ecological effect of large trees may be critical to the persistence of mycorrhizal associates of both the trees and the orchids and hence contribute to the extended hypogeal survival of the orchid.

Dendroclimatological potential of the Australian red cedar

We examined Toona ciliata M.Roemer (Australian red cedar) for its potential to deliver annually resolved tree-ring proxy data. Such proxies are valuable and sought-after sources for reconstructing climate beyond instrumental records, especially in Australia. T. ciliata was chosen because it is one of the few deciduous tree species in Australia experiencing a seasonally dormant period of the cambium. This was confirmed by a preliminary tree-ring analysis which revealed distinct growth rings. Because of initial uncertainties regarding reliable annual growth rings in the wood of T. ciliata, a dendrometer-band study was conducted in addition to the tree-ring analysis. Stem increments revealed a common period of dormancy during winter and the measurements were found to correlate with both precipitation and temperature, depending on the site. For the first time, our tree-ring analysis demonstrated that samples from different individuals can be cross-dated and the resulting site index from Upper Kangaroo Valley (New South Wales) has the potential to reconstruct early season temperatures and late-season rainfall.

Growth and seed yield of lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus) genotypes of West Asian and South Asian origin and crossbreds between the two under rainfed conditions in Nepal

Nineteen diverse lentil genotypes, 8 originating from South Asia, 6 from West Asia, and 5 crossbreds using parents from South Asia and West Asia (or other Mediterranean environments), were evaluated for growth, phenology, yield, and yield components at Khumaltar in the mid-hill region of Nepal. Additionally, dry matter production, partitioning, root growth and water use of 8 selected genotypes from the 3 groups were measured at key phenological stages. The seed yield of the West Asian genotypes was only 330 kg/ha, whereas the South Asian genotypes produced a mean seed yield of 1270 kg/ha. The crossbreds had a significantly (P = 0.05) greater seed yield (1550 kg/ha) than the South Asian genotypes. The high seed yield of both the South Asian and crossbred genotypes was associated with rapid ground cover, early flowering and maturity, a long reproductive period, a greater number of seeds and pods, high total dry matter, greater harvest index, and high water use efficiency. West Asian genotypes, on the other hand, flowered 43 days later, matured 15 days later, and had a shorter reproductive period (by 22 days) than the crossbred and South Asian genotypes. The 23% greater seed yield in the crossbreds compared with the South Asian genotypes was the result of a similar increase in seed size (weight per seed). There were no significant differences in total root length (mean 4.7 km/m2), root dry matter (mean 95.5 g/m2), or water use among the 3 groups during the major part of the growing period. There was a significant difference in total water use due to the longer growing season of the West Asian genotype ILL 7983 and its ability to use late-season rainfall. Maximum water use efficiencies for seed yield of 7.0 kg/ha.mm and for above-ground dry matter of 18.9 kg/ha.mm were comparable with those reported in India and the Mediterranean environments of south-western Australia and Syria.

TEMPORAL VARIATION OF THE RING WIDTH–WOOD DENSITY RELATIONSHIP IN NORWAY SPRUCE GROWN UNDER TWO LEVELS OF ANTHROPOGENIC DISTURBANCE

The ring width–wood density relationship (RW–WDR) is somewhat controversial. Most of the literature reports negative, but weak relationships, while others found no significant relationships at all. This study analyses the RW–WDR using a dataset of twenty even-aged Norway spruce trees grown at two different levels of air pollution in the Eastern Ore Mountains, Germany. Ring width, latewood proportion and wood density were measured in each tree ring. The year-to-year (temporal) variability of the RW–WDR was calculated by sequentially taking the rings grown in the same calendar year in trees within a site. In addition, RW–WDR was also calculated across tree rings (pith to bark) of given trees. During the observed period, the temporal RW–WDR fluctuated between negative and positive correlations with certain climatic patterns, as well as forest operations, playing a prominent role. It was shown that increased late-season rainfall favoured a more positive relationship. The temporal RW–WDR illustrated, for given trees of a site, that smaller rings formed in certain years might be related to higher wood density while other years may result to lower wood density. This finding is useful for an improved understanding regarding the effect of ring width on wood density.

Effect of Dairy Compost Application and Plant Maturity on Forage Kenaf Cultivar Fiber Concentration and In Sacco Disappearance

The forage potential of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) grown for silage has not been fully realized, in part, because of lack of understanding of its quality dynamics. This study was conducted for 2 yr to compare fiber components and in sacco dry matter (DM) disappearance (ISD) differences among cultivars, dairy manure compost application rates, and plant maturity. The application of compost increased (P = 0.05) neutral detergent fiber (NDF) values only. Fiber components were affected by cultivar × plant maturity × year interactions [P < 0.05 for NDF, acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL)] with cultivar EV41, late-season rainfall, and low maturity combining for the lowest values. Cultivar India, however, had as high or higher ISD values compared with the other two cultivars at any given plant maturity both years (cultivar × plant maturity × year ISD interaction, P < 0.05). Cultivar ISD residue fiber concentrations differed (P < 0.05) independently of year or plant maturity; ISD residue ADL and P concentrations also changed (P < 0.05) with plant maturity independently of year and cultivar. Changes in ISD residue NDF and ADF depended on both plant maturity and yearly rainfall patterns (NDF and ADF plant maturity × year interaction, P < 0.05). The proportion of N and P that disappeared in sacco was over 90% for all cultivars, maturities, and years. The proportions of NDF, ADF and ADL that disappeared in sacco, however, decreased with plant maturity and were generally higher for India. In this study, kenaf showed promise as a forage silage in semiarid regions. Differences in fiber concentrations and ISD among cultivars and plant maturity can be manipulated to increase kenaf's feed value to herbivores.

Effect of Dairy Compost Application and Plant Maturity on Forage Kenaf Cultivar Fiber Concentration and In Sacco Disappearance.

The forage potential of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) grown for silage has not been fully realized, in part, because of lack of understanding of its quality dynamics. This study was conducted for 2 yr to compare fiber components and in sacco dry matter (DM) disappearance (ISD) differences among cultivars, dairy manure compost application rates, and plant maturity. The application of compost increased (P = 0.05) neutral detergent fiber (NDF) values only. Fiber components were affected by cultivar x plant maturity x year interactions [P < 0.05 for NDF, acid detergent fiber (ADF) and acid detergent lignin (ADL)] with cultivar EV41, late-season rainfall, and low maturity combining for the lowest values. Cultivar India, however, had as high or higher ISD values compared with the other two cultivars at any given plant maturity both years (cultivar x plant maturity x year ISD interaction, P < 0.05). Cultivar ISD residue fiber concentrations differed (P < 0.05) independently of year or plant maturity; ISD residue ADL and P concentrations also changed (P < 0.05) with plant maturity independently of year and cultivar. Changes in ISD residue NDF and ADF depended on both plant maturity and yearly rainfall patterns (NDF and ADF plant maturity x year interaction, P < 0.05). The proportion of N and P that disappeared in sacco was over 90% for all cultivars, maturities, and years. The proportions of NDF, ADF and ADL that disappeared in sacco, however, decreased with plant maturity and were generally higher for India. In this study, kenaf showed promise as a forage silage in semiarid regions. Differences in fiber concentrations and ISD among cultivars and plant maturity can be manipulated to increase kenaf's feed value to herbivores.

An Early Soybean Production System for Drought Avoidance

Late summer drought during seed formation often limits yield of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] grown in the southern U.S. A field study was conducted to determine if earlier planting of early-maturing varieties could avoid periods of drought stress by having their reproductive development coincide with periods of greater available moisture. Varieties in Maturity Groups (MG) III to VII were planted in mid-April and in mid-May near Blossom and Hooks, TX, from 1986 to 1988. There were significant year and location effects on yield. Two MG III varieties planted in April 1986 at Blossom yielded eight times more than the MG V to VII varieties. Negative correlations were found between yield and maturity date in 1986 and 1987. Early drought stress in 1988 reduced yields about 30% for the April-planted MG III and IV varieties, but yield was again negatively correlated with maturity date. Yields at the Hooks site were up to 45.8 bu/acre higher than those at Blossom, but they were also negatively correlated with maturity date in the April 1986 planting. The seasonal rainfall at Hooks in 1987 was less than half that of 1986 resulting in varietal yields from the early planting being reduced from 8.3 up to 47.1 bu/acre. A negative correlation was still found between maturity date and yield. In 1988, however, late-season rainfall resulted in a positive correlation between yield and maturity for the April planting. Results from this study show that an early soybean production system using adapted MG III and IV varieties can avoid the effects of late summer drought and result in acceptable yields

Rainfall and Grazing Effects on Net Primary Productivity in a Tropical Savanna, India

The effects of rainfall amount, rainfall distribution, and grazing intensity on net primary production and herbivory were examined for a dry tropical savanna. Aboveground net primary production in permanently protected savanna ranged from 329 to 841 g.m—2.yr—1 and was positively related to annual rainfall. It was not related to early rainy season rainfall, but was related to rainfall of the later part of the rainy season. Grazing simulated 4—45% greater net primary production, the simulation being higher at lightly and moderately grazed sites. Consumption, as estimated by comparing net primary production inside temporarily fenced and outside the fenced plots, was 476— 34 g.m—2.yr—1. Consumption in the present savanna was positively related to net primary production, and to annual rainfall. Green biomass, being in function of soil moisture, was greater in the high rainfall year. Belowground net primary production in permanently protected savanna (BnpP) ranged from 404 to 838 g.m—2.yr—1 and was significantly related to annual rainfall. BnpP was not related to early rainy season rainfall but was related to late rainy season rainfall. Total net primary production ranged from 836 to 1579 g.m—2.yr—1 and was also related to annual rainfall than early rainy season rainfall. Grazing reduced belowground net primary production by 25—65% in grazed savanna (BnpG). Maximum reduction occurred in heavily grazed savanna. BnpG was inversely related with rainfall. Total net primary production (herbaceous + woody vegetation) of the savanna ranged from 11.9 to 19.1 Mg.ha—1.yr—1. The total net primary production of the savanna was similar to that of the native dry deciduous forest; however, the production of herbaceous species was 61% lower in the forest. The total net primary production of savanna was higher than that of the dry tropical forest when the belowground net primary production of the 0—50 cm layer was considered.

Influence of rainfall and grazing on herbage dynamics in a seasonally dry tropical savanna

Species composition and herbage dynamics in relation to rainfall variability and cattle grazing were studied in permanently protected, grazed, and temporarily fenced treatments on three sites in a seasonally dry tropical savanna. Permanently protected sites, established between 1979 and 1984, were 55–79% similar with each other in species composition, and 14–25% similar with grazed sites during the period 1986–1988. Similarity among grazed sites was only 36–43%. Number of species was greater in the grazed treatment than in the permanently protected treatment. The percentages of annual grasses and non-leguminous forbs were greater in grazed savanna than in permanently protected savanna. Species diversity was higher in grazed savanna than in the corresponding permanently protected savanna. Species the two annual cycles studied, peak live shoot biomass was 614 g m-2 in permanently protected savanna, 109 g m-2 in grazed savanna, and 724 g m-2 in temporarily fenced savanna. Live shoot biomass in temporarily fenced savanna was 18 to 44% greater than in permanently protected savanna. Peak canopy biomass ranged from 342 to 700 g m-2 in permanently protected savanna. It was related with total rainy season rainfall, and was particularly sensitive to late rainy season rainfall. On the other hand, peak canopy biomass in grazed savanna ranged from 59 to 169 g m-2 and was related to grazing intensity rather than either total rainy season rainfall or late rainy season rainfall. Coefficient of variation of green biomass in permanently protected savanna was related with rainfall variability indicating it to be a pulsed system which responds quickly to rainfall events. Biomass of woody species ranged from 2466 to 5298 g m-2 in permanently protected savanna and from 744 to 1433 g m−2 in the grazed savanna. Green foliage biomass was 3.7 to 6.4% of the woody biomass in permanently protected and 5.6 to 5.9% in grazed savanna, and supplements substantially the fodder resource during the dry periods of the year.

Fruit production by Acacia albida trees in Zambezi riverine woodlands

ABSTRACTFruit production by Acacia albida (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae) trees in Mana Pools National Park, Zimbabwe, was monitored over eight years. Timing of ripe fruit-fall varied between years, as did fruit production: production of ripe fruits by the same tree varied from 5.4 kg in 1983 to 290.1 kg in 1988. Baboons reduced fruit production by feeding on unripe fruits and the mass eaten each year was negatively correlated with rainfall. Potential fruit production (i.e. production in the absence of baboons) was high when the late wet season was wet or cool and when fruit production in the previous year was low. Late wet season rainfall and temperature probably determined the degree of defoliation by caterpillars: in 1983 and 1987, when the late wet season was hot and dry, the trees were almost completely defoliated. During the late dry season, A. albida fruits were an important component of the diets of waterbuck, eland, elephant, buffalo and kudu; they were seldom eaten by hippopotamus and were ignored by zebra and warthog.

Optimization of rainfed tropical cropping in semi-dry areas: A case study

An approach to upgrading rainfed tropical cropping, based on the optimization of rainfall water use, is presented. As an example, two stations in Costa Rica, with a rainy season of six to eight months and a dry period in the rainy season (veranillo) were used. These stations represent a large portion of the Pacific coast of Central America. The potential to grow two rainfed crops per year instead of one was evaluated with the model AQUA, which is based on daily water balances using actual precipitation and on rainfall probabilities. Major aspects considered were (a) the earliest safe planting date at the start of the season; (b) the effect of veranillos; (c) prediction of the characteristics of late-season rainfall; (d) analysis of the period for late-season crop growth; and, (e) the length of the dependable rainfed cropping season. These and other considerations were integrated into potential cropping schemes. The analyses showed that it should be possible to safely grow two rainfed crops per year in these and similar regions that suffer from prolonged periods of water deficit, but exhibit calculated dependable rainfed cropping seasons of over 200 days. The methodology described is applicable to a wide range of tropical conditions; and approaches like the one presented may be an answer to intermediate development needs.

An analysis of agricultural livestock and traditional crop production statistics as a function of total annual and early, mid and late rainy season rainfall in Botswana

Total rainfall amounts are usually not considered as useful indicators for agricultural season qualities because they do not reflect other parameters such as rainfall distribution, crop water requirements and soil moisture-holding capacities. Most methods that also take into account the above parameters have not been validated for Botswana because of the country's restricted meteorological network and because of the non-availability of the necessary soil data. Rainfall alone is, therefore, one of the most frequently used parameters in drought monitoring and quality assessments of agricultural seasons and provides essential, but rough information several months before the real agricultural production data have become available. In this paper, Botswana's national cattle herd size between 1965 and 1985, regional cattle death ratios and regional traditional crop production between 1979 and 1985 have been analysed as a function of total annual and early, mid and late rainy season rainfall as defined by Bhalotra (1985a). It was found that in Botswana, with marginal rainy season conditions both for cattle and crops, such an analysis can be used as a useful indicator for the agricultural quality of a rainy season. To obtain an indicator of the season quality for livestock performance, a weighted average for the past three seasons and for October December (early), January February (mid) and March-April (late) rainfall has to be used. A good indicator for the crop season quality can be obtained from a weighted average of early, mid and late rainfall of the actual season. These indicators cannot, however, be used as indices to forecast livestock condition or crop production, but only to carry out acceptable assessments of rainy season conditions on a subnational or areal scale.

The Annual Rainfall Cycle Over the Central Interior of South Africa

Abstract Satellite imagery and surface rainfall records have been used to develop statistics of Orange Free State rainfall for a number of rain-bearing synoptic systems. Two major categories of system were included in the analysis. Tropical systems are distinguished by a connecting cloud link to the tropical cloud masses. This link is absent for temperate systems. Tropical systems accounted for about 60% of the rainfall over the two areas of the Orange Free State during the period 1967 to 1977. In January this contribution exceeded 80%. Cloud bands linking the tropical and temperate circulations were the major individual contributors. The December rainfall hiatus appears to have its origins in the circulation over tropical Africa. Harmonic analysis reveals that cloud band rainfall was primarily responsible for the annual rainfall cycle over the Orange Free State. Temperate systems made an important contribution to the late season rainfall maximum over the western Orange Free State. Mean atmospheric circul...

Tobacco Budworm: Effect of Early-Season Terminal Damage on Cotton Lint Yields and Earliness12

Damage to young cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L., by Heliothis virescens (F.) delayed boll opening and decreased first-harvest yields. Larvae placed on plants in the fourth to sixth true-leaf stage caused more delay and fewer cumulative blooms than larvae placed on plants in the sixth to eighth true-leaf stage. The short-season plant type recovered from early-season terminal damage faster than did the long-season plant type. Lint cotton yields decreased as budworm infestation increased. Total yield reductions (Tamcot SP-37) were significant at 60 and 40% infestation levels in 1978 and 1979, respectively. Because earliness is the primary objective of a short-season production system, terminal damage may negate the advantage of these plant types. Longseason plant types may overcome the effects of terminal loss; however, increased hazards such as late-season tobacco budworm damage and rainfall also must be considered. Damaged plants ultimately produced more vegetation than undamaged plants. This increased plant volume could impede the mechanical operation of the stripper harvester and increase the probability of barky lint and reduced quality.