Late Iron Research Articles

¿Fondos de cabaña o depósitos rituales? Sobre un tipo de contextos materiales del bronce final y comienzos de la Edad del Hierro en el sur de la Península Ibérica. El depósito de cortijo Riquelme (Almería)

Cortijo Riquelme is a Late Bronze and Early Iron Age’s archaeological dump in the South East of the Iberian Peninsula which belongs to the so called pithouses. This traditional interpretation has been rejected by recent critical studies. Following this positions, the paper analyzes the mentioned dump, which mainly contained Late Bronze and very ancient Phoenician imported pottery, showing the introduction of Phoenician wine and the service for its consumption. A comparison is done with other similar dumps distributed in the South of the Iberian peninsula from Late Bronze Age, though the majority are dated during the early centuries if the 1st millennium bc, coinciding with the Phoenician colonization. Another Mediterranean dumps from Crete, Cyprus, Sicily and North Africa related with feasts help to propose an interpretation for the dump of Cortijo Riquelme and others of the same type, in which the ritual deposit of the containers used in feasts should contribute to the formation of dumps, in a context of increasing competition of local elites in processes of social differentiation.

Mineralogical and geochemical characterization of supergene Cu–Pb–Zn–V ores in the Oriental High Atlas, Morocco

In the Moroccan High Atlas, two sulfide deposits hosted by Jurassic dolostones underwent significant weathering. In the Cu deposit of Jbel Klakh, several stages of supergene mineralization are distinguished: (1) the replacement of hypogene sulfides in the protolith (chalcopyrite) by secondary sulfides in the cementation zone (bornite, digenite, chalcocite, covellite), (2) the formation of oxidized minerals in the saprolite (malachite, azurite, brochantite) where the environment becomes more oxidizing and neutral, and (3) the precipitation of late carbonates (calcite) and iron (hydr-)oxides in the laterite. The precipitation of carbonates is related to the dissolution of dolomitic host rocks, which buffers the fluid acidity due to the oxidation of sulfides. In the Jbel Haouanit Pb–Zn deposit, the mineral assemblage is dominated by typical calamine minerals, Cu minerals (chalcocite, covellite, malachite), and a Cu–Pb–Zn vanadate (mottramite). Galena is successively weathered in anglesite and cerussite. Sphalerite is weathered in smithsonite, which is rapidly replaced by hydrozincite. Late iron (hydr-)oxides are mainly found at the top of both deposits (laterite). Both deposits are thus characterized by specific mineral zoning, from laterite to protolith, related to variations in the mineralogy and ore grades and probably caused by varying Eh-pH conditions.

Endogenous Retroviral Insertions Indicate a Secondary Introduction of Domestic Sheep Lineages to the Caucasus and Central Asia between the Bronze and Iron Age.

Sheep were one of the first livestock species domesticated by humans. After initial domestication in the Middle East they were spread across Eurasia. The modern distribution of endogenous Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus insertions in domestic sheep breeds suggests that over the course of millennia, successive introductions of improved lineages and selection for wool quality occurred in the Mediterranean region and most of Asia. Here we present a novel ancient DNA approach using data of endogenous retroviral insertions in Bronze and Iron Age domestic sheep from the Caucasus and Pamir mountain areas. Our findings support a secondary introduction of wool sheep from the Middle East between the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age into most areas of Eurasia.

Between Roundhouse and Villa: Assessing Perinatal and Infant Burials from Piddington, Northamptonshire

AbstractThe discovery of perinatal and infant individuals is common in the excavation of Iron Age and Romano-British domestic sites. In recent years, the discovery of many such burials has led to interpretations of infanticide and unceremonious disposal. Although this has been a widely discussed phenomenon, much of the literature has focused on the funerary context, and the biological age and sex estimates of these individuals, with little consideration of the palaeopathological evidence. This article provides a detailed analysis of 17 perinates/infants from the late Iron Age/early Roman site of Piddington, Northants. It discusses the skeletal evidence for poor health and growth, and highlights the potential of these remains to reveal alternative insights into perinatal and infant death. Evidence of growth changes and pathological lesions were identified, suggesting that these individuals experienced chronic episodes of poor health that affected their skeletal development. The study explores the implications of these findings within the context of Iron Age and Roman Britain. At Piddington, the death of these infants is not associated with the cultural practice of infanticide, but occurred due to poor health, highlighting the precarious nature of infant survival in the past.

Pyrite Re–Os and muscovite 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Beizhan iron deposit in the Chinese Tianshan Orogen and its geological significance

ABSTRACTThe Awulale iron metallogenic belt (AIMB) hosts the majority of rich iron ores in Tianshan Orogen and has attracted much attention. However, a hot debate exists about the genesis of these iron deposits. Geochronological data are among the few critical evidences to solve the dispute. This study chooses the Beizhan iron deposit to carry out a geochronological research. The Beizhan magnetite deposit, with total iron ore reserves of 468 Mt at an average grade of 41% TFe, is the largest iron deposit in the AIMB. The orebodies of the Beizhan deposit are hosted in Carboniferous dacite and crystal tuff. Four stages of mineral formation can be recognized: an early skarn mineral stage, followed by the magnetite stage, the sulphide stage, and the carbonate stage in order. Pyrite separated from pyrite-rich ore samples yields an isochron age of 302.5 ± 8.2 Ma. Muscovite separated from muscovite-rich ore samples yields 40Ar/39Ar plateau ages of 304.7 ± 1.8 Ma, 304.5 ± 1.9 Ma, 308.1 ± 1.9 Ma, and 307.2 ± 1.8 Ma, and isochron ages of 306.1 ± 3.5Ma, 304.0 ± 3.0Ma, 308.2 ± 3.1Ma, and 308.7 ± 3.1Ma, respectively. These ages are consistent within the error range and are interpreted as the age of the Beizhan iron deposit. The results, combined with the other latest precise dating and geologically inferred ages, demonstrate that the iron deposits in the AIMB were formed in the Late Carboniferous. These iron deposits are considered to be iron skarn or medium–low -temperature hydrothermal origin and have genetic linkages between each other. They may be different mineralizing manifestations proximal to or distal from a pluton. The Late Carboniferous iron ores and the related magmatic rocks in the AIMB were produced when upwelling of the asthenosphere causes the partial melting of various sources and the formation of a narrow linear extension in the upper crust. The upwelling of the asthenosphere may be triggered by the detachment of an orogenic root zone.

A Prehistoric Rock Shelter Burial Site and Enclosure at Scabba Wood, Sprotbrough, South Yorkshire

In 1992 two Middle Neolithic adult skeletons were excavated by South Yorkshire Archaeological Services from beneath a rock overhang at Scabba Wood (SE527019), near Sprotbrough, within one of the valleys north of the Don Gorge. In 1994, the Yorkshire Archaeological Society’s Doncaster branch carried out a geophysical survey of a rectangular enclosure (SE530019), previously recognised by air photography, north-east of the wood, and in 1996 they began the excavation of a stone-walled, sub-rectangular enclosure within the wood, 150 m south of the rock overhang (SE530107). In 1997 and 1998 they were joined by a team from Sheffield University that also continued investigations at the stone-walled enclosure and along the rock overhang. Finds indicate occupation from the Late Iron and Roman period and Neolithic and Early Bronze Age use of the rock overhang for the disposal of the dead.

CRANIAL INJURIES IN THE LATE BRONZE AND EARLY IRON AGE POPULATION OF THE SHNOGH RIVER BASIN, ARMENIA

Excavations at Late Bronze and Early Iron Age cemeteries in the Lori Province of Armenia have yielded 123 human skeletons. In this study, we describe traumatic injuries in crania from the Shnogh River basin, dating to 1300–1000 BC, with a view of reconstructing aspects of social and natural environment. The occurrence of traumas is moderately high (15.6–23.7 %) and varies between groups. Cranial traumatism in males was higher than in contemporaneous populations of the Sevan Basin and the Shirak Plain, but it hardly resulted from warfare. We describe one case of decapitation. Five crania evidence surgical intervention, and three of them show healing.

Book Review of Hasanlu V: The Late Bronze and Iron I Periods, by Michael D. Danti

Book Review of Hasanlu V: The Late Bronze and Iron I Periods, by Michael D. Danti

An Environmental Study of Azerbaijan in the Late Bronze-Early Iron Age Based on Archaeological Data

What occurs in the Iron Age clearly testifies to man’s relief from the burden of finding solutions to the problems of food, housing and natural defenses. In this age, agriculture is carried out by the necessary tools and different irrigation systems. Finding various products becomes possible, and architecture according to the geographical conditions creates its own particular technical rules and requirements. This ere, spanning from 1500 BC to 500 BC, has been identified and explored based on environmental data and systematic excavations.The main feature of the Azerbaijan and its neighboring lands have created many concentration and dispersed areas due to their various species of fauna and flora identified through archaeological excavations, their climatic adaptability, their abundance in water resources and many other favorable environmental conditions. These geographical capacities are among the influential factors in the structure of the Iron Age. What is important is that by analyzing the data related to archaeobotany, zooarchaelogy, palynology and soil study and investigating the flora and fauna symbols on pottery surfaces and the manufactured equipment in the form of animals, it is possible to specify the climate of Azerbaijan in the North West of Iran during that era in Iran’s history. By examining and analyzing these samples, it can be said that in the Iron Age, Azerbaijan had a mild and favorable climate for people, animals and plants.

Tel Dor and Iron Age IIA Chronology

The article discusses the date and historical background of the transfer of Tel Dor from Phoenician to Israelite hands. Archaeologically, the transfer was peaceful and took place in the late Iron A...

The ground stone assemblage of a metal workers community: An unexplored dimension of Iron Age copper production at Timna

The systematic archaeological study of the Timna Valley began over 50 years ago. Since then it has become a key site for understanding ancient copper production technologies in the Near East and beyond. However, the fantastic quantity of ground stone tools which are present at the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age copper smelting sites were never systematically studied. Questions regarding their origin, distribution, typologies, and especially their role within the chaîne opératoire of copper production, were seldom addressed. Although surprising, this has been the case for almost all of the excavated metal production sites around the world.In the framework of the renewed excavations at several of the copper smelting sites at Timna, a pioneering study was conducted in which more than 1000 ground stone tools were identified and registered. These tools include, among others, grinding stones, pounders, anvils and mortars; most were manufactured of compacted sandstone and granite, exposed in several locations in the valley. In this paper we present a typology and quantitative analysis of the ground stone tools which were used by the metal workers, and offer an interpretation of how the various types of tools were employed as part of the copper production process. This provides new insights regarding the smelting process and the conditions needed for its successful outcome.

Burial Caves from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages at Horvat Lavnin in the Judean Shephelah

Horvat Lavnin (Khirbet Tell el-Beida) is a multi-period site located in the Judean Shephelah ca. 5 km south of the Elah Valley. The upper part of the site is mound-shaped and enclosed by a wall that is clearly visible on the surface. Four burial caves on the slopes of the site were looted in the 1990s. Despite the damage caused, the shape of the burial caves and the remaining finds allow us to suggest that the caves were in use during the Late Bronze III and the Iron IIA. The finds are important, as they provide first evidence for the settlement history of the site in these early periods.

The Story of the Westland Cauldrons in Europe

When examining the importance of the distribution of trace elements in metal objects, for example that a Scandinavian analytical project on 500 metal artefacts from the Roman Iron Age has shown that the relationship between selected trace elements are characteristic of the different groups of artefacts - they might even be typical of different Eggers types within the same group. For instance, a ladle/strainer set from the Late Roman Iron Age (LRI), E 161, may have a significantly higher lead/antimony ratio than the older types, E 162. The verification of this principle has, firstly, shown that the scrap metal content of an artefact alloy affects the interpretation of chemical analyses much less than has hitherto been supposed. Secondly, it has shown that elemental alloy composition for the artefacts are more closely related to the raw materials. For example, the ores used have a characteristic content that is a consequence of their geochemistry. While there are always small amounts of silver, antimony and bismuth in galena, the amounts are a function of the location and geological formation of the ore. These facts are well recognized in lead isotope research where the ratio between the lead isotopes is used.The results from the interdisciplinary analytical projects mentioned above are the basis for a continuing examination of relevant artefacts from Nordic and European collections. Initially it was not expected that permission to collect foreign collections would be granted but, in the event, personal contact and a careful sampling protocol opened the doors to international cooperation. Comparative projects are currently proceeding with the Vatican Museum, the Musée Royaux d’Art et d’Histoire, Brussels and Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Mainz and Goethe University, Frankfurt a. Main among others. Glass and metal samples from the excavation of Corway Kloster have been analysed by OES in cooperation with German Universities, with fi nancial support from Volkswagenstiftung over many years. Finally, it is important that all kind of treatment of the artefacts during the study is described in detail and following the artefacts for later scientific work.Elemental analyses are a fingerprint of the alloy content. It has been possible to distinguish the various cauldron alloys from the Roman and the Migration Period. The composition of the alloy characterizes the Westland cauldron compared to other artefacts from the Roman period. The similarity between the alloy in the Scandinavian and some French and Belgian Westland cauldrons is documented, which could point to a common provenance. The alloy composition changes according to form and age. The trace element pattern and the lead isotope relations point to an origin in the Maas valley. The use of scrap metal in the alloy seems avoided for the body of the cauldrons - probably because of the complicated production of the thin walls and bottoms of the cauldrons. In conclusion, one can say that detailed studies of the alloys the ancient smiths have used are providing new knowledge of the expertise and cultural achievements of former ages. One can also assert that the chemical and metallurgical constitution of archaeological treasures is as important as their stylistic description in revealing important aspects of our cultural history.

A technological and anthropological study of iron production in Venda, Limpopo Province, South Africa

ABSTRACTThis study investigates the technology and sociology of indigenous iron production in Venda, northern South Africa, within a framework of ethnographies, historical documents and archaeometallurgical analyses. Investigations revealed that indigenous iron production in the study area, like elsewhere in southern Africa, was based on the direct process in which high-grade iron ores were reduced to metallic iron in charcoal fuelled low-shaft furnaces. The technology exploited at the sites under study used high-grade haematite and magnetite ores, which were extracted from open shaft mines within the vicinity of the smelting precincts. Although new furnace types appeared in the mid-second millennium AD, evidence suggests that the technology of iron smelting was relatively stable during the Early (AD 200-900) and Late (AD 1000 to 1900) Iron Ages. Iron smelting in this area was accompanied by rituals and taboos that connected the smelters to the living and the dead. A comparative study of such rituals and taboos with those invested in other categories of practice, such as male initiation, identified notable similarities and differences. This indicates that material culture production and use broadcast ideas and beliefs applicable to both technical and quotidian practices.

Social Stratification in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages: An Intra‐Site Investigation at Megiddo

SummaryThe article presents an intra‐site investigation of the Strata VIIA and VIA faunal remains at Megiddo, Israel, which date to the LB III and late Iron I respectively. We examined social disparity between the populations of two areas of the city. Our finds indicate a difference in social status and division of labour: a dichotomy between producer‐consumers and consumers, who most probably interacted. Viewed in light of other types of remains at Megiddo, these findings reveal that the inhabitants of one sector engaged in agriculture and cottage industries, while the people in the other part of the city, close to the palace, were more affluent – related to the local ruler and administrators. Our study demonstrates the potential in intra‐site investigation at large, multi‐period sites.

For the Blind Eye Only? Scandinavian Gold Foils and the Power of Small Things

The aim of this paper is to discuss a specific group of stamped gold foils with human representation from the late Scandinavian Iron Age (AD 550/600–800) from the perspective of size. The article argues that the framed gold foils embed sophisticated and multi-layered transformations that capture and echo basic principles of northern cosmology and belief systems related to Odin as the god for kings and his ability as a seer.

Travel and landscape: the Zuo River Valley rock art of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China

Abstract

Rock-cut tombs and funerary landscapes of the Late Bronze and Iron Ages in Sicily: New fieldwork at Pantalica

Rock-cut chamber tombs are characteristic monuments of the Bronze and Iron Ages in southern Sicily. They are found in large numbers and prominent locations at several Late Bronze Age sites, most of which were first investigated over a century ago by Paolo Orsi, but received little attention subsequently. One famous example is the UNESCO World Heritage site of Pantalica, where the author recently conducted fieldwork aimed at clarifying the form, distribution and topographical relationships of the tombs, which date from about 1250–650 b.c. Although these monuments present various practical problems for research, and their contents were removed long ago, the author argues that they can be profitably studied from an architectural, contextual, and landscape perspective. A new sample of the Pantalica tombs is presented, showing a wide range of forms and associations that provides a basis for the discussion of several issues: links with domestic architecture, demography, accessibility, visibility, temporality, and perception.

The chronology and structure of the Sejlflod cemetery, Northern Jutland, Denmark

ABSTRACTThe Sejlflod cemetery in Northern Jutland, containing almost 300 graves from the Late Roman and Early Germanic Iron Age, occupies a central position in a North European perspective. This arises in particular from the fact that the graves are inhumation burials furnished with a relative abundance of grave goods and that the cemetery represents the entire adult population of a village through time. An understanding of the Sejlflod cemetery is important for investigations of other similar cemeteries and burial grounds, for studies of a range of period-defining artefacts and for analyses of the social circumstances of the time. It is, however, heavily dependent on knowledge of the cemetery’s chronological structure.On the basis of the pottery, it has proved possible to divide the cemetery up into four chronological phases. This division is supported by stylistic and chronological analyses of the fibulas and a few other artefact types from the graves.Surprisingly, the chronological analysis does not re...

Articles: Ethnicity in Archaeological Studies, based on a Case Study of East Pomerania during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (1100–400 BC)

Articles: Ethnicity in Archaeological Studies, based on a Case Study of East Pomerania during the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age (1100–400 BC)