Late Flowering Research Articles

Flowering repressor CmSVP recruits the TOPLESS corepressor to control flowering in chrysanthemum.

Plant flowering time is induced by environmental and endogenous signals perceived by the plant. The MCM1-AGAMOUSDEFICIENS-Serum Response Factor-box (MADS-box) protein SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP) is a pivotal repressor that negatively regulates the floral transition during the vegetative phase; however, the transcriptional regulatory mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we report that CmSVP, a chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.) homolog of SVP, can repress the expression of a key flowering gene, a chrysanthemum FLOWERING LOCUS T-like gene (CmFTL3), by binding its promoter CArG element to delay flowering in the ambient temperature pathway in chrysanthemum. Protein-protein interaction assays identified an interaction between CmSVP and CmTPL1-2, a chrysanthemum homologue of TOPLESS (TPL) that plays critical roles as transcriptional corepressor in many aspects of plant life. Genetic analyses revealed the CmSVP-CmTPL1-2 transcriptional complex is a prerequisite for CmSVP to act as a floral repressor. Furthermore, overexpression of CmSVP rescued the phenotype of the svp-31 mutant in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), overexpression of AtSVP or CmSVP in the Arabidopsis dominant-negative mutation tpl-1 led to ineffective late flowering, and AtSVP interacted with AtTPL, confirming the conserved function of SVP in chrysanthemum and Arabidopsis. We have validated a conserved machinery wherein SVP partially relies on TPL to inhibit flowering via a thermosensory pathway.

The WD40 domain-containing protein Ehd5 positively regulates flowering in rice (Oryza sativa).

Heading date (flowering time), which greatly influences regional and seasonal adaptability in rice (Oryza sativa), is regulated by many genes in different photoperiod pathways. Here, we characterized a heading date gene, Early heading date 5 (Ehd5), using a modified bulked segregant analysis method. The ehd5 mutant showed late flowering under both short-day and long-day conditions, as well as reduced yield, compared to the wild type. Ehd5, which encodes a WD40 domain-containing protein, is induced by light and follows a circadian rhythm expression pattern. Transcriptome analysis revealed that Ehd5 acts upstream of the flowering genes Early heading date 1 (Ehd1), RICE FLOWERING LOCUS T 1 (RFT1), and Heading date 3a (Hd3a). Functional analysis showed that Ehd5 directly interacts with Rice outermost cell-specific gene 4 (Roc4) and Grain number, plant height, and heading date 8 (Ghd8), which might affect the formation of Ghd7-Ghd8 complexes, resulting in increased expression of Ehd1, Hd3a and RFT1. Taken together, these results demonstrate that Ehd5 functions as a positive regulator of rice flowering and provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying heading date.

Apple MdbHLH4 promotes the flowering transition through interactions with FLOWERING LOCUS C and transcriptional activation of FLOWERING LOCUS T

Apple (Malus domestica) is one of the most widely cultivated fruit trees in the world and plays a central role in the agricultural industry and the economy. Flowering is a multi-path synergistic process that helps plants achieve high quality and yield in a multilateral environment. Here, overexpressing MdbHLH4 promoted the flowering transition in Arabidopsis, while myc70, a mutant of the MdbHLH4 Arabidopsis homolog, only exhibited a late flowering phenotype under short days. Moreover, the late flowering myc70 mutant phenotype was attenuated by ectopic expression of MdbHLH4. The myc70 mutant recovered from late flowering under short days by exogenous application of gibberellic acid (GA)4+7. The expression of GA biosynthesis-related genes was upregulated and that of GA catabolic genes was downregulated in the apical meristems of the Arabidopsis MdbHLH4 transgenic lines compared with the wild-type, and the opposite was observed in the myc70 mutant. Furthermore, yeast-two-hybrid (Y2H) assays revealed that MdbHLH4 and DELLA family proteins interacted with the C-terminal domain of MdFLC (FLOWERING LOCUS C) protein, suggesting potential competition between MdbHLH4 and MdDELLAs to interact with MdFLC in apples. Additionally, MdbHLH4 directly bound to the MdFT (FLOWERING LOCUS T) promoter and activated MdFT expression; thus promoting the floral transition. Our results suggest that MdbHLH4 is a key gene involved in plant flowering under short day conditions by regulating GA biosynthesis and signaling as well as the expression of MdFT, which provides new insight into the apple flowering mechanism.

Evaluation of Genotypic Variability and Analysis of Yield and Its Components in Irrigated Rice to Stabilize Yields in the Senegal River Valley Affected by Climate Change

Rice is an important cereal crop in many countries, but its production in the Senegal River Valley is hampered by adverse climatic conditions. This study was aimed at evaluating the diversity among genotypes and the association between several phenological and yield attributes of irrigated rice to mitigate the consequences of climate change. During the dry season of 2013–2014, 300 irrigated high yielding oryza sativa indica panel were used in an Alpha-lattice experiment at the Ndiaye research station in Senegal. Results revealed considerable differences between genotypes in yield and yield attributes. Grain yields ranged between 1378 and 9776 kg/ha. There were also substantial differences in the genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variation, broad-sense heritability, genetic advance, and genetic advance as a percentage of the mean between evaluated traits. Days to heading (DH) had a higher broad-sense heritability (67.31%), indicating that the chances of transferring this trait for selection purposes will be higher, and genotypes may be used to generate early or late flowering lines. Significant positive and negative correlations were found between the studied traits and grain yield. Path analysis indicated that the maximum positive direct impact was observed with the harvest index (0.256), and the maximum negative direct effect was observed with the days to heading (−0.142). Results showed that 56 accessions outperformed the local check Giza 178, whose yield was 8987 kg/ha. Using principal component analysis and a dendrogram, genotypes were classified into four groups. The plant materials had significant variability and may be utilized to develop desired features in rice-breeding programs.

Ecological, morpho-agronomical, and nutritional characteristics of Sulla flexuosa (L.) Medik. ecotypes

The present work was part of assessing wild genetic plant resources of forage interest in Northern Morocco and aimed to study the agro-morphology and nutritional value of Sulla flexuosa (L.) Medik. (Hedysarum flexuosum L.) ecotypes. The seeds of twenty-one wild S. flexuosa (L.) Medik. ecotypes were collected from 21 sites. The edaphic and climatic characteristics of the collection sites were studied and testified to the remarkable adaptability of S. flexuosa (L.) Medik. These 21 ecotypes were cultivated in three complete randomized blocks design for two consecutive years. Statistical analysis showed substantial variability between the collected ecotypes. Principal component analysis and heatmap analysis allowed to distinguish four groups of ecotypes mainly based on nutritional parameters (fiber content and digestibility), forage production (dry matter yield, number of leaves per plant, and total number of branches), and reproduction (number of inflorescences per plant and, weight of thousand seeds and seeds per plant). Furthermore, the present study pointed out the value of ecotype 1, which was dual purpose with its high productivity, nutritional value, and reproductive parameters. Ecotype 4 was also highlighted as having late flowering but intermediate productivity, which can be used mainly for haymaking as the drying period could coincide with the last rainfall in the region.

Effect of temporal changes in stamen position on reproductive success in flowers with many stamens: Manipulations of stamen position.

Male and female reproductive success is enhanced (increased outcrossing and seed production, respectively) by stamen movement in species that have few stamens per flower. Does such enhancement also occur in species that have many stamens per flower? We examined the effects of stamen movement on male and female reproductive success in Anemone flaccida, which has many stamens per flower. We measured stamen movement, including temporal changes in anther-stigma and anther-anther distances. We experimentally fixed stamens in their pre- or post-movement positions. The anthers moved horizontally away from the stigmas with increasing flower age, thus reducing female-male interference. The dehisced anthers tended to move farther from the stigmas, while the undehisced or dehiscing anthers remained closer to them. The number of anthers touched per flower visit was higher in flowers whose stamens were fixed in the pre-movement position than in flowers whose stamens were fixed in the post-movement position or in flowers that were not manipulated. Thus, this position may promote male reproductive success. Seed production was lower for the untreated flowers than for those with stamens fixed in the post-movement position, suggesting that the post-movement stamen position is advantageous and stamen movement is suboptimal for female reproductive success. Stamen movement promotes male reproductive success in the early flowering stage and female reproductive success in the late flowering stage. In species having many stamens per flower, female-male interference can be reduced, but not eliminated, by stamen movement due to the conflict between female and male reproductive successes.

Agronomic, Sensory and Essential Oil Characterization of Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) Accessions

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is one of the main condiments for fresh consumption and essential oil production. The aim of the present work was to assess the agronomic characterization and analyze the essential oil of 63 basil accessions. The experiment was conducted in two stages in a greenhouse using vases and a hydroponic cultivation system. Oil extraction was performed employing the Soxhlet method. There was a significant variation in the agronomic characteristics among the evaluated accessions. The estimated total contents of essential oils ranged from 0.05 to 0.40%, and the major volatile fraction was methyl-eugenol. In the present study, accessions with superior performance compared to commercial varieties were found. Accession BL11 presented agronomic characteristics suitable for cultivation in a hydroponic system due to its better plant structure and late flowering. Accession BL24 stood out for essential oil extraction, producing 17.6% of linalool and a high intensity of color and odor. Accessions BL11 and BL24 presented market potential, given their higher mass productivity and higher essential oil yield, respectively. These accessions can be made available as new varieties in addition to being used in genetic improvement programs for this species.

Estimating rice flower intensity using flower spectral information from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) hyperspectral images

Growth monitoring of rice is of great significance to food security of human society. Rice flowering is an important growing stage for grain formation, and flower intensity is the dominant factor in determining rice yield. The estimation of flower intensity helps us to know the rice yield in advance. This research proposed a series of the flower index (FI) to monitor status of rice flowers by developing flower intensity estimation models using stepwise multiple linear regression (SMLR) and random forest (RF), and their performance was compared to the models developed by vegetation indices (VI) of some key growth stages. The FI that in types of normalization (NDFI), ratio (RFI) and differences (DFI) were tested. The involved FIs in the FI-based models were those in type of difference (DFI) that obtained by difference of reflectance before and after flowering (DR) and their first derivative (DR’). The FIs of ten consecutive days during the flowering were obtained and their correlations with flower intensity showed that FIs of the late flowering (the 8th day, 9th day and 10th day) were more significantly correlated to flower intensity than those at the early or mid-flowering, with the maximum correlation coefficient of 0.702 given by FIs in difference type formed by DR’. The accuracy assessment of flower intensity estimation models showed that FI-based models had the equivalent accuracies to VI-based models, especially for the SMLR model that based on four FIs, which had R2 = 0.707, MAPE = 10.54%, rRMSE = 11.39%, was comparable to the model that developed by three VIs of the booting, heading and jointing stages (R2 = 0.751, MAPE = 8.99%, rRMSE = 10.31%). The promising results of FIs in estimating flower intensity make the simple data acquisition possible and provide an alternative way to get information about rice yield.

Assessment of genetic diversity in China aster [Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees

China aster [Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees] is a flowering annual mainly cultivated for loose flower and cut flower, bedding and pot culture. To assess the genetic diversity, 42 genotypes were evaluated for fourteen quantitative traits. The genotypes were found to be highly variable for the traits such as plant height, plant spread, flower stalk length, 100 flower weight, number of flowers per plant, weight of flowers per plant and flower yield per hectare. However, low variability was recorded for vase life and shelf life. The genotypes were broadly grouped into two clusters, which were further divided into cluster 1a, 1b and cluster 2a, 2b, respectively. All the genotypes in cluster 1a were vigorous and medium flowering, whereas, genotypes in cluster 1b were tall, erect, vigorous and late flowering. The cluster 2a comprises of the genotypes with short stature, small flower and early flowering, however, cluster 2b contains only two genotypes. In principal component analysis (PCA) PC1 was highly correlated to flower yield, weight of flowers/plant, flower stalk length and plant height and PC2 was highly positively correlated to shelf life and vase life and negatively correlated to 100 flower weight. The results suggested that the existing variation in China aster genotypes could be used for the development of trait-specific novel genotypes.

Spectrum of chlorophyll mutations and morphological variations in Abelmoschus esculentus L. induced through gamma radiation

Okra [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench], is an economically exploited important traditional vegetable crop of the world. The present investigation examined the variability in induced chlorophyll mutants and othermorphological variations in okra. Seeds of two open pollinated popular varieties of okra namely Arka Anamika and Arka Abhay were irradiated with gamma doses of 30, 50 and 80 kR. The treatment 50 kR enhanced plant height, number of fruits per plant, fruit length, single fruit weight and total fruit yield per plant. Spectrum of several chlorophyll mutants were observed in the M1 generation. Other macro-mutants such as early and late flowering types, dwarf statured plants, leaf and flower mutants were also noticed at different doses of gamma radiation. The total number of visible mutation followed a trend of increasing frequency with the increase in dose of radiation.

Variations in pollinator-mediated selection of floral traits across flowering times

Abstract Spatiotemporal variations in plant–pollinator interactions drive floral evolution and shape the diversity of flowers in angiosperms. However, the potential role of plant–pollinator interactions in driving floral differentiation across flowering times within a population has not been documented. In this study, we aimed to quantify the variations in pollinator-mediated selection of floral traits across different flowering times of Primula sikkimensis (an entomophilous plant) in two natural populations. The results demonstrated that plants were shorter and produced fewer flowers with larger sizes in the early flowering time than in the late flowering time. In early flowering time, pollinator types were fewer and visitation frequency was lower than in late flowering time, resulting in lower female fitness. Pollinator-mediated selection of floral traits varied with flowering time, and more floral traits received pollinator-mediated selection during early flowering time. These results highlight that temporal variation in plant–pollinator interactions may have a potential role in driving floral diversification within the population.

Responsiveness to long days for flowering is reduced in Arabidopsis by yearly variation in growing season temperatures.

Conservative flowering behaviours, such as flowering during long days in summer or late flowering at a high leaf number, are often proposed to protect against variable winter and spring temperatures which lead to frost damage if premature flowering occurs. Yet, due the many factors in natural environments relative to the number of individuals compared, assessing which climate characteristics drive these flowering traits has been difficult. We applied a multidisciplinary approach to 10winter-annual Arabidopsis thaliana populations from a wide climactic gradient in Norway. We used a variable reduction strategy to assess which of 100 climate descriptors from their home sites correlated most to their flowering behaviours when tested for responsiveness to photoperiod after saturation of vernalization; then, assessed sequence variation of 19 known environmental-response flowering genes. Photoperiod responsiveness inversely correlated with interannual variation in timing of growing season onset. Time to flowering appeared driven by growing season length, curtailed by cold fall temperatures. The distribution of FLM, TFL2and HOS1 haplotypes, genes involved in ambient temperature response, correlated with growing-season climate. We show that long-day responsiveness and late flowering may be driven not by risk of spring frosts, but by growing season temperature and length, perhaps to opportunistically maximize growth.

Haplotype Analysis of GmSGF14 Gene Family Reveals Its Roles in Photoperiodic Flowering and Regional Adaptation of Soybean.

Flowering time and photoperiod sensitivity are fundamental traits that determine soybean adaptation to a given region or a wide range of geographic environments. The General Regulatory Factors (GRFs), also known as 14-3-3 family, are involved in protein-protein interactions in a phosphorylation-dependent manner, thus regulating ubiquitous biological processes, such as photoperiodic flowering, plant immunity and stress response. In this study, 20 soybean GmSGF14 genes were identified and divided into two categories according to phylogenetic relationships and structural characteristics. Real-time quantitative PCR analysis revealed that GmSGF14g, GmSGF14i, GmSGF14j, GmSGF14k, GmSGF14m and GmSGF14s were highly expressed in all tissues compared to other GmSGF14 genes. In addition, we found that the transcript levels of GmSGF14 family genes in leaves varied significantly under different photoperiodic conditions, indicating that their expression responds to photoperiod. To explore the role of GmSGF14 in the regulation of soybean flowering, the geographical distribution of major haplotypes and their association with flowering time in six environments among 207 soybean germplasms were studied. Haplotype analysis confirmed that the GmSGF14mH4 harboring a frameshift mutation in the 14-3-3 domain was associated with later flowering. Geographical distribution analysis demonstrated that the haplotypes related to early flowering were frequently found in high-latitude regions, while the haplotypes associated with late flowering were mostly distributed in low-latitude regions of China. Taken together, our results reveal that the GmSGF14 family genes play essential roles in photoperiodic flowering and geographical adaptation of soybean, providing theoretical support for further exploring the function of specific genes in this family and varietal improvement for wide adaptability.

Genetic Mapping of Genotype-by-Ploidy Effects in Arabidopsis thaliana.

Plants can express different phenotypic responses following polyploidization, but ploidy-dependent phenotypic variation has so far not been assigned to specific genetic factors. To map such effects, segregating populations at different ploidy levels are required. The availability of an efficient haploid inducer line in Arabidopsis thaliana allows for the rapid development of large populations of segregating haploid offspring. Because Arabidopsis haploids can be self-fertilised to give rise to homozygous doubled haploids, the same genotypes can be phenotyped at both the haploid and diploid ploidy level. Here, we compared the phenotypes of recombinant haploid and diploid offspring derived from a cross between two late flowering accessions to map genotype × ploidy (G × P) interactions. Ploidy-specific quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were detected at both ploidy levels. This implies that mapping power will increase when phenotypic measurements of monoploids are included in QTL analyses. A multi-trait analysis further revealed pleiotropic effects for a number of the ploidy-specific QTLs as well as opposite effects at different ploidy levels for general QTLs. Taken together, we provide evidence of genetic variation between different Arabidopsis accessions being causal for dissimilarities in phenotypic responses to altered ploidy levels, revealing a G × P effect. Additionally, by investigating a population derived from late flowering accessions, we revealed a major vernalisation-specific QTL for variation in flowering time, countering the historical bias of research in early flowering accessions.

Optimization of light/dark cycle in an extended photoperiod‐based speed breeding protocol for grain legumes

AbstractThe use of high‐performing varieties could contribute to increase food legume production and meet the population demand. However, the long process of conventional breeding is a serious limitation that needs further acceleration of genetic improvement. Speed breeding based on extended photoperiod is one of the techniques that allows rapid generation turnover by accelerating the plant life cycle. The present study focused on optimizing the duration of extended photoperiod for lentil, chickpea and faba bean in a growth chamber with light‐emitting diode (LED) light sources. Significant differences in growth rate, biomass production, phenology, physiology, plant injury and yield components were observed depending on light phase durations (22, 18 and 14 h). Twenty‐two hours of light resulted in earlier flowering and maturity, but higher stress symptoms than the other two light treatments. However, vegetative development was almost normal with limited stress under 14 h of light, but late flowering and maturity. Interestingly, good plant establishment with limited stress and shorter vegetative cycle was observed under 18 h of light. Therefore, a photoperiod of 18 h of light/6 h of darkness could be advised for a rapid breeding protocol.

Cross talk between Cu excess and Fe deficiency in the roots of rice

Copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) share similar characteristics and participate as coenzymes in several physiological processes. Both Cu excess and Fe deficiency result in chlorosis, however, the crosstalk between the two is not clear in rice. In this study, we performed transcriptome analysis for Cu excess and Fe deficiency in rice. Some WRKY family members (such as WRKY26) and some bHLH family members (such as late flowering) were selected as novel potential transcription factors involved in the regulation of Cu detoxification and Fe utilization, respectively. These genes were induced under corresponding stress conditions. Many Fe uptake-related genes were induced by Cu excess, while Cu detoxification-related genes were not induced by Fe deficiency. Meanwhile, some genes, such as metallothionein 3a, gibberellin 3beta-dioxygenase 2 and WRKY11, were induced by Cu excess but repressed by Fe deficiency. Concisely, our results highlight the crosstalk between Cu excess and Fe deficiency in rice. Cu excess caused Fe deficiency response, while Fe deficiency did not lead to Cu toxicity response. Metallothionein 3a might be responsible for Cu toxicity-induced chlorosis in rice. The crosstalk between Cu excess and Fe deficiency might be regulated by gibberellic acid.

The AP2/ERF transcription factor TOE4b regulates photoperiodic flowering and grain yield per plant in soybean.

Photoperiod-mediated flowering determines the phenological adaptability of crops including soybean (Glycine max). A genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified a new flowering time locus, Time of flowering 13 (Tof13), which defined a gene encoding an AP2/ERF transcription factor. This new transcription factor, which we named TOE4b, is localized in the nucleus. TOE4b has been selected for soybean latitude adaptability. The existing natural variant TOE4bH4 was rare in wild soybean accessions but occurred more frequently in landraces and cultivars. Notably, TOE4bH4 improved high-latitude adaptation of soybean to some extent. The gene-edited TOE4b knockout mutant exhibited earlier flowering, conversely, TOE4b overexpression delayed flowering time. TOE4b is directly bound to the promoters and gene bodies of the key flowering integration factor genes FT2a and FT5a to inhibit their transcription. Importantly, TOE4b overexpression lines in field trials not only showed late flowering but also altered plant architecture, including shorter internode length, more internodes, more branches and pod number per plant, and finally boosted grain yield per plant by 60% in Guangzhou and 87% in Shijiazhuang. Our findings therefore identified TOE4b as a pleiotropic gene to increase yield potential per plant in soybean, and these results provide a promising option for breeding a soybean variety with an idealized plant architecture that promotes high yields.

Synchronization of Arabidopsis flowering time and vegetative growth stage via FT overexpression can reveal inherent heterosis due to heterozygosity in intraspecific hybrids.

Intraspecific hybrids of Arabidopsis sometimes display heterosis. However, allelic variation of flowering repressor genes causes late flowering in F1, which might distort the potential heterosis effect due to prolonged vegetative growth. Here, overexpression of flowering gene FT synchronized flowering and eliminated growth differentials between parental and F1. These findings indicate the possibility of quantitatively demonstrating the inherent heterosis caused by heterozygosity.

Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of the SWEET Gene Family in Annual Alfalfa (Medicago polymorpha).

SWEET (Sugars will eventually be exported transporter) proteins are a group of sugar transporters that are involved in sugar efflux, phloem loading, reproductive development, plant senescence, and stress responses. In this study, 23 SWEET transporter members were identified in the Medicago polymorpha genome, heterogeneously distributed on seven chromosomes. These MpSWEET genes were divided into four subfamilies, which showed similar gene structure and motif composition within the same subfamily. Seventeen MpSWEET genes encode seven transmembrane helices (TMHs), and all MpSWEET proteins possess conserved membrane domains and putative serine phosphorylation sites. Four and three pairs of MpSWEET genes were predicted to be segmentally and tandemly duplicated, respectively, which may have contributed to their evolution of M. polymorpha. The results of microarray and RNA-Seq data showed that some MpSWEET genes were specifically expressed in disparate developmental stages (including seedling stage, early flowering stage, and late flowering stage) or tissues such as flower and large pod. Based on protein network interaction and expression patterns of MpSWEET genes, six MpSWEET genes were selected for further quantitative real-time PCR validation in different stress treatments. qRT-PCR results showed that MpSWEET05, MpSWEET07, MpSWEET12, MpSWEET15, and MpSWEET21 were significantly upregulated for at least two of the three abiotic stress treatments. These findings provide new insights into the complex transcriptional regulation of MpSWEET genes, which facilitates future research to elucidate the function of MpSWEET genes in M. polymorpha and other legume crops.

MsTFL1A delays flowering and regulates shoot architecture and root development in Medicago sativa.

MsTFL1A is an important gene involved in flowering repression in alfalfa (Medicago sativa) which conditions not only above-ground plant shoot architecture but also root development and growth. Delayed flowering is an important trait for forage species, as it allows harvesting of high-quality forage for a longer time before nutritional values decline due to plant architecture changes related to flowering onset. Despite the relevance of delayed flowering, this trait has not yet been thoroughly exploited in alfalfa. This is mainly due to its complex genetics, sensitivity to inbreeding and to the fact that delayed flowering would be only advantageous if it allowed increased forage quality without compromising seed production. To develop new delayed-flowering varieties, we have characterized the three TERMINAL FLOWERING 1 (TFL1) family of genes in alfalfa: MsTFL1A, MsTFL1B and MsTFL1C. Constitutive expression of MsTFL1A in Arabidopsis caused late flowering and changes in inflorescence architecture, indicating that MsTFL1A is the ortholog of Arabidopsis TFL1. Overexpression of MsTFL1A in alfalfa consistently led to delayed flowering in both controlled and natural field conditions, coupled to an increase in leaf/stem ratio, a common indicator of forage quality. Additionally, overexpression of MsTFL1A reduced root development, reinforcing the role of MsTFL1A not only as a flowering repressor but also as a regulator of root development.We conclude that the precise manipulation of MsTFL1A gene expression may represent a powerful tool to improve alfalfa forage quality.