Late Edo Period Research Articles

에도시대 두창의 예방과 치료: 인두법의 수용을 중심으로

This paper explores the introduction of smallpox variolation (人痘法) as a means of addressing the smallpox epidemic during the Edo period in Japan. It also investigates the impact of smallpox variolation on Japanese society during the late Edo period. I begin by outlining the history of smallpox epidemics in Japan. Subsequently, I document the process of introducing and developing smallpox variolation, which was considered a valuable preventive measure against smallpox during that period. While smallpox variolation was introduced in the mid-18th century, it took about half a century for the practice to be effectively implemented. Several physicians attempted variolation during this period, but Ogata Shunsaku (緖方春朔) was renowned as the first to succeed on a large scale, particularly with children. He authored works such as “Shutohissunben (種痘必順辨)” to advocate for the effectiveness of variolation. Additionally, rather than simply adopting the Chinese method of variolation, he developed his own method that took into consideration Japan's unique climate and environment, hoping to enhance the efficacy of variolation. During that time, the prevailing response to the smallpox epidemic focused on diagnosis and treatment using medicine rather than variolation. While Ogata Shunsaku actively practiced variolation, the shogunate established an institution within the medical department tasked with the prevention and treatment of smallpox. This institution propagated the Ikeda-ryu (池田流) method, which specialized in diagnosing and treating smallpox. Despite disparities in approaches, competition between smallpox prevention and treatment catalyzed the accumulation of relevant medical knowledge and experience in Japan during the early 19th century. Initially, variolation was introduced from China; however, over time, researchers experimented with it in various ways, integrating knowledge from Rangaku (蘭學) and cowpox inoculation (牛痘法). Responding to academic and technical developments, Ranpoi (蘭方醫) made diverse attempts at variolation that served as precursors to the eventual adoption of cowpox inoculation. Examining the process of variolation’s introduction and implementation elucidates the characteristics of early 19th-century Japanese medicine that transcended disciplinary boundaries.

근세 후기 문적 사원과 막부 권력의 관계

The monzeki temple was an existence that supported the sacredness of the Tokugawa shogunate. At the same time, it was the religious force that the shogunate wanted to control. This paper examines the relationship between the monzeki temple and the Tokugawa shogunate in the late Edo period, based on the loan finance (myōmoku-kin loan) operated by the temple.
 In 1819, the shogunate put forward the principle that the details of myōmoku-kin loan should be reported to the shogunate as a prerequisite for the loan protected by the power. Regardless of this trend, some of the monzeki temple’s loan were still unconditionally protected by the power. However, they will soon be sentenced to the application of the principle without exception. At the same time, investigation was conducted on the loan.
 The problem arose when the shogunate's protection of the loan was suspended during the investigation. As a result, there were collective movements of the monzseki temple that the shogunate must resume suspended protection. The temple at the time recognized that the protection of the shogunate was essential for stable operation of the loan.
 In the late Edo period, relationship between the monzeki temple and the Tokugawa shogunate was deepening for different reason than before. There is the perception of the monzeki temple that the loan business can no longer guarantee its stable operation without the power. The relationship between the monzeki temple and the shogunate was solidified not by the need of the shogunate, but by the the need of the temple.

Historyzm w myśli Ogyū Soraia

The article examines the thought of the Japanese Confucian philosopher Ogyū Sorai, asking whether any traces of historicism can be found in his ideas. Ogyū Sorai was a prominent early 17th-century thinker, whose considerable role in the development of Japan’s modern philosophical tradition is widely known, mostly because of how he criticized the dominant node of Neo-Confucianism that supported the Tokugawa political system. Contrary to the most common trends in analyzing Ogyū Sorai, the author focuses neither on the political or strictly philosophical aspect of his thinking, but rather on his views regarding the past and its role in shaping the future. While discussing the Japanese philosopher’s major works, such as Benmei, Bendō, and Sorai-sensei tōmonsho, the author comes to the conclusion that a historicist approach toward the flow of time can be clearly seen in Sorai’s thinking. His philosophy displays no ahistoricism nor cyclical understanding of time. This creates a strong case for further research on how Sorai’s thought facilitated the development of ideas on progress and modernization in the late Edo period of Japanese history.

19세기 구니사다 미인화의 양식적 변천 연구

Before the Bunka period, the typical expressions used in paintings were similar to those of Utamaro and Toyokuni. Moreover, one can easily witness the unique characteristics of Kunisada, such as the dynamic posture and the tension in the Bunsei-era Kunisada. In particular, the emergence of Mira-motive is indispensable for the development of Okubi-e. If Utamro was a bijin okubi that alluded to a mirror using kira (雲母) on the 大首絵, then Kunisada’s was an epoch-making one that meant the reflection of a beautiful woman in a mirror that has no substance (or exists outside the screen). I created a “modern makeup mirror - combined mirror” in collaboration with Hirosige, a popular landscape painter. She focused on expressing the rich facial expressions and natural proportions of women, to show that women are a part of nature. The lively and dynamic facial and physical expressions of the women depicted in Kunisada Bijinga were later sublimated by Kuniyosi in the late-Edo period, and by his disciples in the Meiji period.

The versions of Shiguzhai Hui Ju Jian Bian Dan Fang by Wu Mianxue

Shiguzhai Hui Ju Jian Bian Dan Fang, was the only medical book for prescription and formula collected and compiled by Wu Mianxue in the period of the Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (1573-1620). It had seven volumes in total with six of them popular at that time. The volumes contained 1,460 folk formula and clinical prescriptions which were divided into 111 categories based on their corresponding symptoms of diseases. The set was issued in the beginning of the 17th century, with only three subsets of the volumes left in China today. The three remained versions were the subset of volumes 4-5 left in the Ming Dynasty in the Medical College of Tianjin, the subset of volumes 1-2 and 6-7, with preface, left in the seventeenth of the Shun Zhi Period in the Qing Dynasty (1660) in the Shanghai University of Chinese Medicine and the subset of volumes 4 and 6-7 from time unknown. Additionally, three unabridged versions were found in the Cabinet Library of the National Archives of Japan. They were the Ming version with preface of the seventeenth of the Shun Zhi Period in the Qing Dynasty and a hand-copied version left in the Edo period. It was found that the preface in the seventeenth of the Shun Zhi Period in the Qing Dynasty in both of these versions in China as well as the version in Japan, were counterfeit. The main texts in these versions were edited according to the Ming version. The hand-copied version in Japan was transcribed by Kasahara Eisan and edited by Tanba Motoken according to the Ming version in the late Edo Period.

RESTORATION OF THE FORMER YOSHIZAWA HOUSE IN NISHIJIN, KYOTO

The former Yoshizawa House in Nishijin, Kyoto, had a floor plan of four rooms lined up along the Tori-niwa. “Oriya-date Style” is known as a form of townhouse unique to Nishijin area; its feature is the floor plan that uses the back room as a non-floored factory space. This paper clarified that the house originally was a weaving house built in the late Edo period, and consists of a factory space in the back, as well as two rooms next to it. This house is valuable as a concrete example of “Oriya-date Style”, which dates back to the Edo period.

Concept <i>Japanese National Character</i> through the Prism of Migration Policy

The strategy and tactics of Japan's contemporary migration policy are determined by the ethnocultural characteristics of the Japanese nation, recognized as the concept of national character (国民性 kokuminsei), which is both a political and scientific entity. The rapid changes in migration policy today expose the practical need to study the causes, consequences, and specifics of related social and political concepts such as national character and the factors that shape it. The accurate knowledge helps predict cultural, political, and socioeconomic changes and future agendas. This concept is a subject of paramount importance for international relations studies, as it is rooted in the Japanese nation's self-consciousness and represents core elements of national history within its interrelation with present policy. The study suggests that the Japanese national character, described and conceptualized in the late Edo period (1603–1868) and the Meiji period (1868–1912), still influences the attitudes of the Japanese towards migration and foreigners in general. The representatives of kokugaku (国学 national study) that originated at that time and nihonjin-ron (日本人論 theories about the Japanese) that developed further sought to assert the authenticity of Japanese culture and its history and construct a national identity. Assumingly, it would become an instrument of protecting the country from the influence of China and later the West. Today, researchers of Japanese culture, both in Japan and abroad, continue to refer to post-war nihonjin-ron, criticizing, rethinking, or adding to its major provisions. Content analysis of the vocabulary used in connection with the concept of national character in official documents regulating the relevant area of social policy, as well as in the media and social networks, has revealed some features of the modern interpretation of this concept. In particular, there are attempts to identify socially significant features of a member of Japanese society. Certain acculturation efforts required from migrants imply the development of the skills that are socially important from the point of view of Japanese society. The comprehensive analysis of measures for the integration and adaptation of migrants implemented by the local governments of Japan has shown that communicative phenomena associated with the concepts of meiwaku (迷惑 causing trouble), omoiyari (思いやり considerate caring for others), as well as the culture of gift-giving and apologizing play an important role in the relationships between Japanese and foreigners. In addition, the analysis of migration policy allows concluding that the concept of coexistence between Japanese and foreigners (多文化共生 tabunka kyousei) currently pursued by the government, despite its promising title, does not quite correspond to multiculturalism in its classical sense, in other words — does not imply deliberate government action to preserve and develop cultural differences within one society.

The Historical System of Defending and Manufacturing

Foreign ships came into the territorial seas in the late Edo period forced the shogunate to revitalize the plan of defending the country. Defending with cannons was planned as a strategic choice and manufacturing of cannons was promoted. Material processing especially under manufacturing of cannons has already been researched. Cannons require structures for their deployment, which were mainly batteries called Daiba. They were constructed on the sea and by the seashore all over the country. This series of research mainly focuses on material processing under manufacturing related to coastal defence. Cannons and batteries are generally deployed in an integrated plan, so how they were deployed relatedly composes another important issue. Defending by firing also requires defending against firing and supplying for firing, components for which also had to be deployed between multiple cannons on batteries. The aim of this paper is to research the historical system of defengding and manufacturing.

Reforms by Peter the Great as a Model for Japan in the Writings of the Late Edo Period

The first knowledge about Peter the Great seems to penetrate into Japan during the lifetime of this Russian emperor, as early as the beginning of the 18th century. However, it was only after first attempts of Siberian merchants to start trade relations with Japan’s northernmost domain of Matsumae when Japanese intellectuals began to study Russia and its history. By the end of the century, the image of Peter the Great as an outstanding ruler had formed in Japan, with his main achievement being the expansion of the country’s territory, after which European Russia suddenly shared a border with northern Japan. Katsuragawa Hoshu, a court physician and the author of one of the first descriptions of Russia, might be the first Japanese who implied Peter the Great’s activities as a model for Japan, pointing out his politics in spreading the foreign trade. Japanese intellectuals of the first half of the 19th century continued to use Peter the Great’s reforms as a possible model for Japan. Watanabe Kazan (1793–1841) in his “Note about the Situation in Foreign Countries” used the Russian emperor as evidence of a leader’s role in winning nature-based and geographical obstacles in a country’s development. Aizawa Seishisai (1782–1863) and later Sakuma Shozan (1811–1864) pointed out Peter’s leadership qualities and personal involvement in reforms. Based on the study of Peter’s activities, Aizawa managed to create the program of Japan’s reforming known as the “New thesis” (“Shinron”, 1825), while Sakuma promoted the necessity of Western learning, especially the development of navy and artillery. This allows to assume a great influence of the study of Peter the Great and Russian history in formulating the ideas of a “rich country and strong army” that became a cornerstone of national ideology in Meiji Japan.

STUDY ON SPATIAL STRUCTURES OF OKURA-SYO IN JAPAN DURING THE EDO PERIOD (PART 2) : CONDITIONS THAT FORMED THE TYPE OF BUILDING ARRANGEMENT

1: The purpose of this study was to clarify the conditions that formed the type of building arrangement in the Okura-syo (water transportation facilities) of various domains. In western Japan, Okura-syo with basic type are few in each domain, and many domains have a unique building arrangement. Examples include the Daisyoji Domain, Fukui Domain, Tottori Domain, Yanagawa Domain, and Kumamoto Domain. These Okura-syo had a spatial structures that is rarely seen in other regions, such as gates exclusively for carrying thing in or carrying thing out, divided yard, and two types of storehouses. 2: Research procedures are shown. In western Japan, domains without an inspection station were prominent, and influence on type by an inspection station were predicted. 3: First, inspection station, gates, yards surrounded by storehouses and facilities (Okura, etc.) were shown for each domain. Next, a typical Okura-syo in the domain which had a unique building arrangement were shown through the spatial formation method. 4: The unique building arrangement were grouped into Enclosure Group and Parallel Group. In the Enclosure Group, there were two cases. First, a case that a storehouse connect to the next storehouses; “Connected type”. Second, a case that a storehouse separate from the next storehouses; “Non-connected type”. In the “Connected type”, there were two cases. First, a case that all storehouses are same kind. Second, a case that storehouses are two kind; storehouses of two kind are arranged in the site as separating to each. In the “Non-connected type”, there were two cases. First, a case that a storehouse exists in the yard. Second, a case that many storehouses exist in the yard. On the other hand, in the Parallel Group, there was a case that a storehouse is not opposite the other storehouse. They were classified into four categories according to whether they are basic type or non-basic type and whether they have an inspection station, and commonalities for each category were clarified. There were tendencies regarding the number of gates and the appearance of yards in each category. From this, it was predicted that an inspection station and the number of gates influenced its types. 5: The following points were mentioned as conditions for basic types. The Okura-syo owned by Tottori domain become the parallel type when the ridge of an inspection station (have a distance from the front gate) is parallel to the line connecting the front and back gates, and when the ridge is parallel to the direction that the gates open. When this was not the case, it was an enclosure type. Each domain's Okura-syo that did not have an inspection station were easy to type when one gates had, and when had restrictions of the site. When it was a relatively few buildings, and when the gates were opened to the same direction as the ridges of storehouses that form the types, they became the parallel types. When there were many buildings, they became the enclosure types. 6: Summary. Looking at the Okura-syo in western Japan in the late Edo period, the building arrangement was acquire mainly by the domain's unique spatial formation methods, but it was concluded that they became the basic type according to conditions such as the number of gates, the spatial structures between gates and buildings, and the surrounding environment.

Secular trend in skeletal growth among urban Japanese during the Edo period (1603–1867)

ObjectiveThe present study aims to investigate whether any secular change in growth occurred among the urban populations during the Edo period (1603–1867). During this time, the preconditions for industrialization were established through rapid urbanization, population increase, and economic development. MaterialsNinety subadult and 189 adult skeletal remains were recovered from eight Edo-period burial sites in Tokyo were examined. MethodsMaximum femoral lengths were measured and compared between the early and late Edo periods. ResultsWhile subadults of the late Edo period—especially of higher status—tended to have longer femoral lengths, the adult males tended to have slightly shorter femoral lengths. No clear difference was found among adult females. ConclusionsThere was no clear or consistent secular change in growth patterns or in adult stature. The impact of social and economic transformations in 17th-century Japan on growth and on general health status remains unclear. SignificanceThis is the first study to examine the impact of social changes on growth immediately before the industrialization of Japan. It will be helpfull to understand the complex relationship between human growth and social changes. LimitationsChanges in growth patterns may have been obscured by the small sample size, errors in estimating age and femoral lengths, temporary changes in growth in the late Edo period, or catch-up growth. Suggestions for Further ResearchRe-examining with a larger sample, introducing more precise dating of burials and more precise age estimation methods, and examining multiple physiological stress indicators are necessary.

幕末期における藩儒の『孟子』講義 : 吉村秋陽・斐山に着目して

幕末期における藩儒の『孟子』講義 : 吉村秋陽・斐山に着目して

The Transcription of the <i>Shōbōgenzō</i> at Kōkenji Temple in Kawagoe City

This study examines the transcription of the Shōbōgenzō during the late Edo period. The survey target was the Shōbōgenzō manuscript copied by Iwata Raihō 岩田来鳳 (?–1886) at the Kōkenji 孝顕寺 in Kawagoe 川越 city toward the end of the Edo period. According to appended materials, in this book the marginal notes were transcribed by Iichi Jōin 惟一成允 (1788–1861) and Gettan Zenryū 月潭全龍 (?–1865), who were Genzōka 眼蔵家 (specialists in the Shōbōgenzō) at the time. In this study, I have compared the text and marginal notes with related books such as the Shōbōgenzō copied by Kaiden 戒傳. I discovered that the text was influenced by the editions of Kōzen 晃全 and Manzan 卍山. Therefore, the conventional perception that most of the Shōbōgenzō manuscripts after the publication of the Eiheiji 永平寺 edition were transcripts of the Eiheiji edition needs to be revised. Additionally, I confirmed that marginal notes match across multiple transcripts, and discovered that Genzōka marginal notes were transcribed and propagated by multiple scribes.

A novel challenge of nondestructive analysis on OGATA Koan's sealed medicine by muonic X-ray analysis.

OGATA Koan (1810-63) was a physician and the director of Tekijuku, and he contributed to Western medicine in the late Edo period. Osaka University preserves two of his medicine chests. One of the chests, which was used in his last years (the second chest) contained 22 glass bottles and 6 wooden cylinders. These bottles and cylinders contained formulated medicines; however, about half cannot be opened because of the long-term storage. It is necessary to comprehend the physical property of both the containers and their contents for investigation of this adequate preservation method; however, destructive analysis is not allowed. To analyze the medicines sealed in the glass bottles, we focused on muonic X-ray analysis, which has high transmittance. First, we certified the analytical methods using a historical medicinal specimen preserved in Osaka University. Thereafter, we applied the method on the bottles stored in the second chest. X-ray fluorescence identified the glass of those bottles to be lead potash glass. Among these bottles, we chose the bottle with the label "," which contains white powdered medication, for muonic X-ray analysis. We identified the contents of the medication in the glass to be Hg2Cl2. Through this study, we first applied muonic X-ray analysis on the medical inheritances and succeeded to detect the elements contained both in the container and in the contents of the sealed bottle. This would be a new method for nondestructive analysis of such cultural properties.

The Dōjō School’s Waka Poetry of the Famous Places on the Shoji Paper Doors in the Middle and Late Edo Period

The Dōjō School’s <i>Waka</i> Poetry of the Famous Places on the <i>Shoji</i> Paper Doors in the Middle and Late Edo Period

Survival Strategies of Buddhist Temples in the “Political City” of Kyoto during the Late Edo Period

Survival Strategies of Buddhist Temples in the “Political City” of Kyoto during the Late Edo Period

歌語「神風」変容の内実 : 幕末国学者中島広足の歌作一斑

歌語「神風」変容の内実 : 幕末国学者中島広足の歌作一斑

Strengthening of Gongendo-Dyke and Widening of Akahoshi-River in Middle and Late Edo Period

Strengthening of Gongendo-Dyke and Widening of Akahoshi-River in Middle and Late Edo Period

The evolution of sushi and the power of vinegar

Sushi did not become the staple food we eat today, with its vinegared rice and toppings eaten together known as hayazushi (fast sushi), until the mid-Edo period. Prior to this, sushi was usually fermented using lactic acid fermentation. As fermented sushi evolved from honnare (fully fermented sushi), to namanare (partially fermented sushi), to kairyō namanare (improved partially fermented sushi), the fermentation period became shorter. From namanare onwards, fermented sushi went from being simply preserved fish to a dish in which fish and rice are eaten together. Sushi then evolved into hayazushi, and in the late-Edo period, nigirizushi (hand-pressed sushi) was invented in the city of Edo (Tokyo). One of the things that supported the development of nigirizushi culture was red vinegar (aka-su) developed in Handa Bishu (located in modern day Aichi). Red vinegar gets its name from its red color and is made from aged sake lees.

From Country to Nation: Ethnographic Studies, "Kokugaku," and Spirits in Nineteenth-Century Japan by Gideon Fujiwara

Reviewed by: From Country to Nation: Ethnographic Studies, "Kokugaku," and Spirits in Nineteenth-Century Japan by Gideon Fujiwara Mark Teeuwen From Country to Nation: Ethnographic Studies, "Kokugaku," and Spirits in Nineteenth-Century Japan. By Gideon Fujiwara. Cornell East Asia Series, 2021. 292 pages. ISBN: 9781501753930 (hardcover, also available as e-book). Ibukinoya, the Kokugaku school of Hirata Atsutane (1776–1843), stands out among the private academies of the late Edo period for a number of reasons. Ibukinoya had an exceptionally large number of registered disciples—well over four thousand by 1870 following a rise from 553 at the time of Atsutane's death. Atsutane's teachings spread to all corners of Japan, even making some inroads into the curriculum of domain schools. In the first years of Meiji, Atsutane's heir, Kanetane (1799–1880), and other Ibukinoya members occupied positions of influence in the new government, adding to the school's visibility and leading to a temporary influx of new members. This ended abruptly in 1871–1872, however, when an alleged plot to return the emperor to Kyoto and the death of Kanetane's son and heir plunged Ibukinoya into a steep decline. Atsutane's ideas and practices nonetheless remained central to many of the Shinto sects that won official status from 1882 onward. Ibukinoya's cycle of boom and bust raises many questions. How did this school attract so many members across such a large spectrum of classes and localities? What did Atsutane's teachings mean to those who invested in them, and why did Ibukinoya's membership expand so rapidly decades after his death? What forms did local Ibukinoya groups take, and what kind of activities held these groups together? Finally, what was the local legacy of such groups after the 1871 crisis? Gideon Fujiwara's book sheds light on these questions by focusing on a hitherto largely ignored Ibukinoya group based in Hirosaki domain (the western half of today's Aomori Prefecture, also known as Tsugaru). This group never grew particularly large or prominent, reaching only a modest eighteen members in 1871 in contrast to branches in places like neighboring Akita domain, with 330 members, or the Ina valley in Shinano (Nagano), with 386. Hirosaki was in fact a latecomer on the Kokugaku scene. The initiative to start an Ibukinoya group there was taken by the townsman Tsuruya Ariyo (1808–1871) in 1857; the group collapsed in the year of Ariyo's death, which coincided with Ibukinoya's sudden decline at the national level. In the intervening fourteen years, the group produced no scholars of national note. That, of course, was equally true of most other Ibukinoya branches in the provinces. Fujiwara cites five goals for this study (pp. 8–9). The first is to shed light on the diversity within Kokugaku at the grassroots, as revealed by the wide range of activities [End Page 382] and interests among local members. Goals two through four are concerned with tracing and analyzing a few of those interests, namely, visions of a divine "Imperial Japan" and attempts to find a place for local identities within that national framework; an "ethnographic" fascination with local customs; and "religious" practices revolving around kami worship and particular views of the spirit world and the realm of the dead. The fifth aim is to trace how the Ibukinoya group in Hirosaki fared when modernity rendered Kokugaku irrelevant in a world dominated by Western ideas and technology. The two main protagonists of the study are the aforementioned Ariyo and the more famous Hirao Rosen (1808–1880). As noted, Ariyo was the primus motor of the Hirosaki group. He ran a poetry circle and served as a liaison between acquaintances in Hirosaki (mainly fellow circle members) and Kanetane in Edo. Ariyo's group bought books by Atsutane and held regular poetry meetings. Worship practices were integral to its activities: Ariyo recited norito prayers in front of Atsutane's portrait and other "spiritual treasures" associated with the scholar at the meetings. He also encouraged all members to perform "daily worship" of gods highlighted by Atsutane and of their ancestors (pp. 110–13). Members prayed to be freed of the corrupting influence of the "Chinese heart" and to...