Late Classic Period Research Articles

Catalogue of small finds from excavations outside the fortified palace of Romuliana, 2005-2007

The excavations of the trial trenches extra muros Romuliana, in the 2005-2007 period, were carried out in cooperation with the DAI RGK (R?misch-Germanische Kommission des Deutches Arh?ologische Instituts), in order to verify the results of a previously conducted geophysical survey. Although the number of finds obtained from the eight test-pits (05/1, 05/2, 06/1, 06/2, 07/1, 07/2 07/3 and 07/4), that had been explored during four campaigns, was not big among them we can still find artifacts of great importance for studying the history of Romuliana, relating to the Late Classical and Early Byzantine period, from the end of the III up to the end of the VI century A.D. We point out finds of cruciform, gold fibula, coming from the tomb explored in the year 2005, and a gilded specimen with imperial portraits, from grave 6 explored in 2006. Finds of early Byzantine bronze fibulae, with a reversed back foot, are also of some importance, as well as glass vessels and a large number of iron tools. The finds in the catalogue are listed according to the explored units.

Survey, Settlement, and Population History at the Ancient Maya Site of Pacbitun, Belize

Survey and excavations of mounds on the outskirts of the site of Pacbitun in western Belize provide insights into the ancient Maya settlement pattern at this medium-sized regional center. This research employed two methods: analysis of structural remains from four separate 1000 m transect surveys,and a subsequent complete (100%) survey of intervening and adjacent quadrant areas. The overlap of quadrant zones with portions of the transect units permits an examination of the accuracy of transect surveys. Excavation of a 22% sample of all identified mounds provides chronological and functional information. An estimate of 200 persons for the resident elite population of the Epicenter of Pacbit un is offered. Initial settlement occurred in the Epicenter of the site during the Middle Preclassic period (900–300 B.C.), with a population rise through time until the final phase of the Late Classic period (A.D. 700–900), when density reached 550 persons (periphery Zone) to 950 persons (Core Zone) per sq km. The impact on settlement size and distribution of topography, soils,water resources,and intensive agriculture (hillside terracing) is assessed and found to be significant. At the time of florescence,the population of the 9 sq km site is estimated to have been about 5000–6000 persons. This population estimate is compared with several coeval lowland Maya centers,and found to be reasonable for a medium-sized, Late Classic Maya center.

PRECLASSIC MAYA OCCUPATION OF THE ITZAN ESCARPMENT, LOWER RÍO DE LA PASIÓN, PETÉN, GUATEMALA

Maya elites and commoners intensively occupied the Itzan escarpment, located in the lower Río de la Pasión drainage system of Petén, Guatemala, during the Preclassic and Protoclassic periods. Itzan was colonized during the Xe phase of the Middle Preclassic period, and its occupation intensified during the late Middle and Late Preclassic periods, when elite residential and ceremonial facilities were erected. During the Late Preclassic and Protoclassic periods, the escarpment was dominated by Chaak Ak'al, a large site distinguished by massive pyramids and lengthy wall-like constructions, which undoubtedly served as a polity capital. Subsequent to the Protoclassic period, the locus of activity atop the escarpment shifted back to Itzan, which served as a polity capital through the Late Classic period. From data collected at Itzan, Chaak Ak'al, and other sites of the lower Río de la Pasión drainage system, a picture of regional Preclassic Maya political geography is emerging.

Political and socioeconomic implications of Classic Maya lithic artifacts from the Main Plaza of Aguateca, Guatemala

Political and socioeconomic implications of Classic Maya lithic artifacts from the Main Plaza of Aguateca, Guatemala. This article discusses the results of an analysis of 4,076 lithic artifacts collected in and around the Main Plaza of Aguateca, Guatemala, by the Aguateca Restoration Project Second Phase with the objective of examining Classic Maya political and socioeconomic organization. First, combined with the results of analysis of 10,845 lithic artifacts collected in the Palace Group, the elite residential area along the Causeway, and other parts of the site by the Aguateca Archaeological Project First Phase, the data on obsidian artifacts indicate a skewed distribution, suggesting that the rulers of Aguateca controlled the main access to obsidian in the city while the procurement and distribution of obsidian polyhedral cores may have been administered by the royal court of the Aguateca dynasty as part of its political economy. Second, several lines of lithic evidence reinforce the argument advanced by Inomata et al. (2004) that Structure L8-8, a large temple building, was abandoned during its construction toward the end of the Late Classic period. Third, Ruler 3 of Aguateca carried out the royal Maya ritual of caching obsidian and chert eccentrics as well as other lithic artifacts in Structure L8-5 facing a large plaza. The theatrical performance and dedication ritual involved in the deposition of the eccentrics and other artifacts in the temple reinforced the ruler’s political and economic power. Finally, the obsidian data show that the Terminal Classic Maya of the Petexbatún region were not isolated from other regions but participated in long-distance exchange networks during this period.

E-GROUPS, PSEUDO–E-GROUPS, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CLASSIC MAYA IDENTITY IN THE EASTERN PETEN

The identity of the Classic Maya was expressed through public architecture and the creation of sacred landscape, which incorporated the landscape of creation and the concept of the world tree. Pyramids, plazas, stelae, and ballcourts were important components of this landscape. In the Peten, architectural complexes known as “E-groups” were another component. E-groups are well-known astronomical “orientation calendars” that were first built in the Terminal Preclassic period. Named after Group E at Uaxactun, they consist of three buildings on the east side of a public plaza and a fourth in the middle of the plaza or on the west side. Terminal Preclassic E-groups functioned as solstice and equinox markers. However, their function changed in the Early Classic period, arguably due to influence from Teotihuacan, to a focus on agricultural seasons. In this paper, I argue that pseudo–E-groups were built well into the Late Classic period in the eastern Peten and were a defining architectural complex for the region. The original, functional Terminal Preclassic E-groups were based on ritual activities focused on solar events. By the Early Classic, E-groups had become multipurpose parts of the sacred landscape of public architecture. Late Classic pseudo–E-groups, however, had become nonfunctional for either solar or agriculturally oriented observation. Nevertheless, they had become so deeply embedded into the template of sacred space and architecture that pseudo–E–groups were constructed to reinforce the identity of cities and the validity of their rulers.

Strategic Location and Territorial Integrity: The Role of Subsidiary Sites in the Classic Maya Kingdoms of the Upper Usumacinta Region

The Upper Usumacinta region was the scene of an intense interaction between the different kingdoms of the Classic Maya Period. This interaction took the form of political and marriage alliances as well as warfare and is well attested in the inscribed monuments of the region, especially towards the Late Classic Period (c. AD 600-900). Through this interaction the Maya rulers would not only assert their claim to power but also ensure the boundaries of their kingdoms, with an eye to accruing a vaster domain. Collage of images from article The definition of the political organisation and territorial extent of the Maya Lowland kingdoms is an issue that has attracted the attention of various scholars (Adams 1981; Adams and Jones 1981; Ball and Taschek 1991; Flannery 1972; Freidel 1981; Hammond 1974; 1981; Inomata and Aoyama 1996; Mathews 1988; 1991; Sanders 1981). Like these scholars, I have presented a model aimed at estimating the territorial extent of the kingdoms of the Upper Usumacinta region, taking into account the physical characteristics of the terrain (Anaya Herná ndez 2001). In this article I approach this issue again, focusing this time on the importance that the subsidiary centres located at strategic locations across the landscape had for the maintenance of the territorial integrity of the kingdoms of Pomoná and Piedras Negras. The political importance of these sites is reflected in the efforts that the kings of these polities went through to warrant the loyalty of the rulers of these secondary centres, as can be attested by the presence of a sculptured stela at the site of Panhalé, in the vicinity of Pomoná , and an inscribed wooden box found within the Redenció n del Campesino Valley that makes reference to a Piedras Negras ruler. To address this issue I took advantage of the capabilities that GIS offers to model movement across the physical setting in order to define the potential boundaries between the aforementioned kingdoms in the light of the available archaeological and epigraphic data. Regarding the latter, the hieroglyphic inscriptions record a couple of devastating attacks that Piedras Negras launched upon Pomoná in AD 792 and 794. I argue on the basis of the characteristics of the physical landscape and the territory controlled by each of these polities that, in order to carry out a successful campaign, Piedras Negras must have exercised control of one of the few natural passes that separate the coastal plains, where Pomoná lies, from the remainder of the Upper Usumacinta region, where Piedras Negras is located. One of these passes lies in the Redenció n del Campesino Valley; however, no subsidiary site of significance was known to exist in this valley. In this sense our 2004-2005 archaeological reconnaissance of the valley was geared to search for a site of this nature. Once again taking advantage of the spatial modelling capabilities of GIS, a probability model based on Dempster-Shafer Theory was designed to identify the areas of high potential where the presence of this type of site may occur. The probability model was tested in the field and a site located that, due to its monumental architecture, could be characterised as a subsidiary site of high strategic and political relevance.

The textile industry at Krsevica (Southeast Serbia) in the fourth-third centuries B.C.

The site of Kale at Krsevica, with significant remains of a settlement dating to the late Classical and early Hellenistic periods, has yielded, in addition to other finds, more than a thousand loom weights, spindle whorls and spools of which 1038 pieces are typologically classified. This material provides evidence for the craft of weaving in the settlement in the fourth and early third centuries B.C.

A Ritual Spindle Whorl Deposit from the Late Classic Maya Site of E1 Pilar, Belize

Excavations near the ceremonial precinct of El Pilar, an important Maya center in Belize, exposed a Late Classic period concentration of almost 200 broken limestone spindle whorls. A program of experimentation demonstrated that the whorls were purposely destroyed, possibly as part of a ritual event or events. Such rituals may have been part of a strategy to enhance the status of spinners by honoring deities associated with spinning.

Deciphering the inorganic chemical record of ancient human activity using ICP-MS: a reconnaissance study of late Classic soil floors at Cancuén, Guatemala

Inorganic chemical analysis of soil floors using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was undertaken to provide information on the nature and location of past human activity in the ancient Maya city of Cancuén, Guatemala. The use of ICP-MS to detect trace and ultra-trace elemental enrichment of two excavated soil floors from the late Classic period is the first study of its kind in Mesoamerican archaeology. Geochemical background of the site was established by the analysis of palaeosols and nearby undisturbed ‘off-site’ soil profiles. Robust statistical methods used in the study clearly distinguished the level of anthropogenic enrichment across the former floors. Many elements measured showed only minor departures (10–20%) from the site's background soil chemistry. The greatest levels of elemental enrichment were detected in the rare earth elements, mercury, and gold. The latter is of particular interest considering the consensus that gold was absent from the world of the Classic-period Maya. Comparisons of the spatial pattern of mercury enrichment with lithic and archaeological data show strong linkages to past industrial and ritual activities. Elevated rare earth element concentrations were recorded broadly across both soil floors and are considered to be related to concentrated human occupation in antiquity.

The Influence of Orphic Beliefs on the Development of Hellenistic Astrology

Orphism has been a scholarly battleground since the 19th century. Past and present conflicts within the field, as well as a general reluctance on the part of researchers to acknowledge the historical importance of astrology, have obscured the relevance of Orphic astrological motifs that may have influenced both the development of Hellenistic astrology and the cosmological aspects of philosophy from the Presocratic period through Plato to the late classical period and beyond. Consequently, there has been little or no research into the astrological dimension of Orphic beliefs. This paper, while not discussing the details of Hellenistic astrological techniques, is intended to open a discussion on the subject of Orphic influences on the development of Hellenistic astrology.

THE OBSIDIAN TRADE TO THE TUXTLAS REGION AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PREHISTORY OF SOUTHERN VERACRUZ, MEXICO

Evidence from the Tuxtla Mountains in southern Veracruz suggests that Teotihuacan established a base at Matacapan, the region's top-ranking center, sometime during the Early Classic period. This development in Tuxtlas's prehistory was associated with the founding of Matacapan, a major shift in settlement pattern, and the presence of substantial amounts of Fine Buff, a lower fired variant of Fine Orange that resembles Copa ware, a common Middle Classic-period ceramic service ware at Teotihuacan. Teotihuacan's influence at Matacapan, as monitored ratios of candelero- and tripod support to rim sherds, increased markedly in the succeeding early Middle Classic period but declined in the late Middle Classic and early Late Classic periods. At the same time, Teotihuacan's influence extended well into the countryside, where it was present not only at other large sites, but also at small villages and hamlets. These developments were associated with changes in the amount and kind of obsidian traded to the Tuxtlas. The total volume of obsidian traded to the Tuxtlas in the Middle and Late Classic periods was huge: from 7.5 to 19.6 metric tons per year. Matacapan had preferred status as far as the consumption of green obsidian was concerned, and in general, pre-Hispanic settlements in the Tuxtlas consumed more of this material than neighboring areas such as La Mixtequilla and the Hueyapan region. When Teotihuacan declined in importance and its influence throughout Mesoamerica waned, a much smaller amount of obsidian—in particular, material from Pachuca—was traded to the Tuxtlas. This is precisely what we would expect if the Central Mexican city was no longer the conveyor of obsidian over long distances, and some other center—perhaps Cantona or El Tajin—replaced Teotihuacan as the primary distributor of obsidian to southern Veracruz.

Raman spectroscopic analysis of the Maya wall paintings in Ek’Balam, Mexico

Raman spectroscopy has been applied to the examination of wall painting fragments from the archaeological site of Ek’Balam (Yucatán, Mexico). Thirty-three samples have been studied, all originating from room 23 of the Acropolis, and being representative of the painting technique at Ek’Balam during the late Classic Maya period. Several pigments such as haematite, calcite, carbon, cinnabar and indigo were identified in these samples. The latter pigment was presumed to be present as ‘Maya blue’, which is an intercalation product of indigo and palygorskite clay. The observed Raman spectra are reported and some band assignments have been made. This survey is the first Raman spectroscopic examination of a whole set of pigments in archaeological Maya wall painting fragments.

Agricultural Rhythms and Rituals: Ancient Maya Solar Observation in Hinterland Blue Creek, Northwestern Belize

AbstractAgriculture in prehispanic Mesoamerica necessitated not only a wide range of knowledge regarding soil types, fertility, and the growing cycles of different plants, but also the attendant rituals that firmly situated agrarian production into a shared Mesoamerican worldview. Due primarily to archaeological visibility, those attendant rituals have traditionally been investigated within the context of large centers. Recent investigations at the site of Quincunx, a hinterland architectural complex in northwestern Belize of the Maya Lowlands, provide evidence that some rural communities may also have had access to and control over esoteric knowledge involved in agricultural practice in the Late Classic period. Our findings are discussed in the context of ethnographic accounts and archaeological data that reveal the deep significance of quincuncial designs in Maya society and Mesoamerican ritual practices.

Inductively coupled plasma emission spectroscopy and Postclassic Petén slipped pottery: an examination of pottery wares, social identity and trade*

ICP–ES analysis of the clay pastes of Postclassic (c. ad 850–1524) slipped pottery from the central Petén lakes region establishes chemical composition groups that provide information concerning manufacturing traditions and trading patterns. These data demonstrate that manufacturing traditions and trading patterns change throughout the Postclassic period, reflecting possible socio‐political alliances as different ethnic groups migrated to and from the Yucatán peninsula into the central Petén lakes region. The chemical composition groups also demonstrate that some manufacturing traditions imitate those from the Late Classic period and that some clay sources were used throughout the Postclassic period for multiple ceramic groups.

Doctoral Dissertations in Military History

This is the thirty-second supplement to Doctoral Dissertations in Military Affairs: A Bibliography (Manhattan: Kansas State University Library, 1972). Information on dissertations published in the United Kingdom is based on: (1) Historical Research for University Degrees in the United Kingdom, published each May by the University of London Institute of Historical Research; or (2) the quarterly Index to Theses, which is listed as ITT, vol. # (issue #), year. The compilers would appreciate information regarding omissions and dissertations completed outside the United States. Write: Edward A. Goedeken, Parks Library, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011. Listings below include the order number of the dissertation (which may be purchased from University Microfilms International, Dissertation Copies, P. O. Box 1764, Ann Arbor, MI 48106) and the issue of Dissertation Abstracts International in which the abstract appeared. If no DAI issue is given, the dissertation is from a university that does not cooperate with DAI. For dissertations with no order number (n.o.n.), researchers should contact the university directly. For universities located in Canada, microfiche copies of dissertations are available from the National Library, Ottawa, Canada. In addition, the Center for Research Libraries holds a collection of foreign doctoral dissertations, which can be used through interlibrary loan. Write: Director, The Center for Research Libraries, 5721 Cottage Grove Avenue, Chicago, IL 60637. The subject field for entries is history unless it is spelled out or indicated by one of the following abbreviations: AS = American Studies BA = Business Administration EC = Economics ED = Education/Educational Psych. JO = Journalism LIT = Literature MC = Mass Communications PS = Political Science/lnternational PSY = Psychology Relations/Public Admin. SP = Speech SO = Sociology/Social Work [End Page 1039] Section I: Studies in World Military History A. Ancient History Brice, Lee L. "Holding a Wolf by the Ears: Mutiny and Unrest in the Roman Military, 44 B.C.-A.D. 68," University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2003, DAI 64/03A. Cowan, Ross H. "Aspects of the Severan Field Army: The Praetorian Guard, Legio II Parthica and Legionary Vexillations, A.D. 193-238," Glasgow University (U.K.), 2002, HRUD. Dayton, John Christopher. "The Athletes of War: An Evaluation of the Agonistic Elements in Greek Warfare," Brown University, 2003, DAI 64/04A. Fronda, Michael Patrick. "The Italians in the Second Punic War: Local Conditions and the Failure of the Hannibalic Strategy in Italy (Roman Republic)," Ohio State University, 2003, DAI 64/04A. Gardner, Andrew N. "Military and Civilian in Late Roman Britain: An Archaeology of Social Identity," University of London (U.K.), 2001, HRUD. Karakas, Scott Louis. "Subject and Symbolism in Historical Battle Reliefs of the Late Classical and Hellenistic Periods," University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2002 (ART HISTORY), ISBN 0-493-60383-2, Sept. 2002. Karavas, John N. "The Evolution of Roman Frontier Fortification Systems in the Lower Danube Provinces, 1st-2nd Centuries A.D.," Durham University (U.K.), 2002, HRUD. Quillin, James Michael. "Imaginary Invasions of Italy: Fear Propaganda, Consensus, and Imperialism, 200-146 B.C." Stanford University, 2002 (LIT), ISBN 0-493-53383-4, Jl. 2002. Moore, Rosemary Lindsey. "The Art of Command: The Roman Army General and His Troops, 135 B.C.-138 A.D." University of Michigan, 2002, ISBN 0-493-88594-3, Apr. 2003. Watts-Tobin, Alex. "Generals and Particulars in Thucydides," University of Southern California, 2000 (LIT), ISBN 0-493-55022-4, Aug. 2002. B. Asia/Oceania Arcala, Rosalie Balandra. "Democratization and the Philippine Military: A Comparison of the Approaches Used by the Aquino and Ramos Administrations in Re-Imposing Civilian Supremacy," Northeastern University, 2002 (PS), ISBN 0-493-66522-6, Oct. 2002. Carruth, James Russell. "An Extension of Behavioral Correlates of War (BCOW) to the Indo-Pakistan Rivalry, 1993-2000," University of Mississippi, 2002 (PS), ISBN 0-493-95280-2, DAI 63/12A. Chan, Gordon. "The Communist Resistance Movement in War-torn Guangdong, China, 1937-45," University of London (U.K.), 2001, HRUD. David...

THE RISE OF SECONDARY STATES IN THE SOUTHEASTERN PERIPHERY OF THE MAYA WORLD: A report on recent archaeological and epigraphic research at Pusilha, Belize

How does state-level political organization develop in small polities located in peripheral areas? The Pusilha Archaeological Project, which has completed two field seasons, is studying political and economic development at the ancient Maya city of Pusilha, Toledo District, Belize. Pusilha emerged in the Early Classic period (a.d. 250‐600) as a small regional polity, but throughout much of the Late Classic period (a.d. 600‐800) it may have been influenced by larger neighbors such as Copan and Caracol. Our goals are to study both the political and economic trajectories of the site to better understand processes of integration and state formation from the perspective of a marginal, second-order polity. Our research entails (1) the detailed epigraphic and iconographic study of the 46 monuments known from the site, (2) systematic mapping of the entire 6- to 9-km 2 city, (3) test-pitting operations in non-architectural contexts, (4) excavation and consolidation of select structures, and (5) artifact analyses. During the 2001 and 2002 field seasons, described in this report, we conducted systematic survey of a 1.5-km‐long transect through the site core, mapped many additional groups at the site, excavated 24 test pits in various architectural groups, excavated and consolidated a partially destroyed structure occupied during the Postclassic period, developed a multi-phase ceramic chronology, and analyzed the many hieroglyphic inscriptions that describe Pusilha’s 700-year‐long dynastic and mythological history.

Prehistoric Salt Production at El Salado, Veracruz, Mexico

AbstractEl Salado is a prehispanic salt production site located in the Tuxtla Mountains of southern Veracruz, Mexico. Fieldwork at the site was conducted to determine the methods of salt production, the character of the archaeological residues produced, the scale of the industry, and the history of production. El Salado contains two major occupations, the first dating to the Early Formative period and the second to the Late Classic period. During the Early Formative, solar evaporation in pottery trays was the primary method of salt production. This method was supplemented by some salt-making that involved boiling brine in tecomates. During the Late Classic, in contrast, boiling salt water became the preferred method of production. Late Classic brine reduction involved a two-step process. The salt level in the brine was first increased by boiling in collared jars. This brine was later reduced to loaves by boiling in shallow pottery vessels called cazuelas.

Guardian of the Acropolis: The Sacred Space of a Royal Burial at Piedras Negras, Guatemala

Excavation of a small Maya ceremonial structure at the site of Piedras Negras, Guatemala, has revealed a Late Classic period (ca. A.D. 600–900) vaulted tomb containing the remains of a young member of the royal family whom we identify as “Night-time Turtle.” The artifact assemblage from the burial included a modest quantity of carved jade jewelry (38 pieces), an incised vessel dating to the early Yaxché (ca. A.D. 630–680) ceramic phase, and a ceremonial “bundle” of bloodletting implements. Although the sex of this adolescent was not determined during osteological examination, hieroglyphic evidence from a recovered stingray spine suggests that this was a prince, probably the son of Ruler 2 or 3. Placed at an entrance to the royal precinct atop its monumental staircase, his funerary structure was an integral part of the sacred landscape, accessed by visitors to the precinct or to the palace beyond. Following a description of the site, tomb, osteology, and artifacts, we discuss the nature of this landscape and the role in it played by this “guardian” of the Acropolis.

Sak Tz’i’, a Classic Maya Center: A Locational Model Based on GIS and Epigraphy

AbstractThe ancient Maya hieroglyphic inscriptions of the upper Usumacinta region record an intensive interaction that took place among its regional capitals. The precise geographic locations of some of these sites are presently unknown. Through the application of the Gravity Model within the framework of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), we present the probable locations and possible territorial extents of a few of these: Sak Tz’i’, Hix-Witz, and the “Knot-Site.” On this occasion, however, we concentrate our discussion on the role that the kingdom of Sak Tz’i’ played in the geopolitical scenario of the region. It is our belief that this case study constitutes a good example of how, through a conjunctive approach that integrates the archaeological with the epigraphic data, GIS can represent an excellent analytical tool to approach archaeological issues such as the political organization of the Maya Lowlands during the Late Classic period.

Pedagogy, Intellectuals, and Dissent in the Later Middle Ages: Lollardy and Ideas of Learning by Rita Copeland (review)

REVIEWS rita COPELAND, Pedagogy, Intellectual andDissent in the LaterMiddleAges: Lollardy andIdeas ofLearning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001. isbn: 0—52165238 -3. $65. In arguing that the dissenting movement ofLollardy was not only heterodox in its theology but in its pedagogy—arguing that Lollardy, in effect, had its own specific pedagogy separate from that found in the universities—Copeland makes significant contributions to the medieval field of Lollardy and WyclifFism; at the same time, she engages current debates in the fields ofchildhood studies and literacy acquisition. The book's primary intention is to show how classical discourses ofeducation were instrumentally re-deployed in later debates about heresy, laity, and popular reading. One such discourse revolved around the concept ofthe 'literal sense,' perhaps most familiar to British medievalists from the controversy over vernacular scriptural translation at the end ofthe fourteenth century, where the benefits and the dangers of having the 'naked text' in English were energetically debated. Copeland shows that this debate about literal sense had a long pedigree: in classical educational theory, the literal sense was associated with childhood and the acquisition of literacy (or latinitas), while 'deeper' or hermeneutical forms of reading were associated with advancement to adulthood. Writers like Quintilian and Plutarch saw the advantages ofcaptivating schoolboys' attention with the superficial pleasures of stories, while late classical neo-platonists associated the literal sense with the narrow (and so barely legitimate) inquiry of the grammarian, preferring instead their own philosophical, spiritual understanding of a text's depths. The revival of neo-platonism associated with twelfth-century cathedral schools again confirmed this division, reducing the literal sense to the puerile understanding ofelementary classrooms. In the late Middle Ages, the literal sense thus became a symbolic boundary: those who read in this manner were marked by the dependency and insufficiency ofchildhood while those who read for a deeper understanding were associated with adulthood. This symbolic division extended beyond the classroom, since the division also marked off 'those who cannot advance beyond intellectual infancy—women, rustici, vulgar't from 'those endowed with reason and hermeneutical perspicacity—men, clergy, litteratt (84). Copeland argues that this privileging of the deeper (or more 'philosophical') reading from the late classical period onwards led not only to hermeneutical enfranchisement but also to political enfranchisement. The adult reader was seen to have political agency in a way that the literal reader did not. When the Lollards began teaching adults to read, the literal sense became the primary pedagogical tool ofthese new reading communities. The Lollard classroom resisted the traditional association ofliteral reading with childhood (just as it resisted the rigidly hierarchical schema ofuniversity training), instead arguing for an open or horizontal model of teaching that lacked 'the ritualized violence of academic correction and coercion' (124). Instead ofseeing themselves as pedagogical objects, lay 'pupils' were encouraged to see themselves as political subjects whose dissenting identities were formed through participation in scriptural interpretation and in the production and distribution ofvernacular texts. 112ARTHURIANA This study extends our understanding ofthe relation ofLollardy to other cultural institutions by relating the Wycliffite doctrine ofliteral scriptural reading to earlier orthodox champions of the literal sense like Hugh of St. Victor and Conrad of Hirsau. Copeland shows that literalism, while disdained for rhetorical reasons by late classical writers, only became politically controversial when it was associated with Lollard pedagogy. Anti-Lollard polemic stigmatized lay literalism as an altogether different practice than that espoused by earlier scholastic writers, who used literal reading as a tool ofscriptural exegesis. By emphasizing this difference, church authorities effectively returned lay adult readers to a state of intellectual disenfranchisement associated with childhood which, in turn, provided a rationale for denying them access to the bible. The puerility oflay literal reading thus became a hallmark ofanti-heretical polemic. While the debate over scriptural translation generated multiple (and often contradictory) readings ofwhat the literal sense meant on both sides, it also bred a new model of extra-university intellectual activity, a model that was embraced by imprisoned Lollards like Richard Wyche and William Thorpe. For Copeland, the dissenting intellectual emerges in a moment ofAlthusserian interpellation, hailed into (oppositional) existence by the interrogational setting ofthe heresy trial. The values of the heretical classroom allowed these writers...