Late Bronze Age Site Research Articles

Using Lead Isotopes to Determine Pottery Provenance in Cyprus: Clay Source Signatures and Comparison with Late Bronze Age Cypriote Pottery

This paper presents the lead isotopic composition of potential clay sources for pottery production, collected in the four major geological zones of Cyprus (Troodos Ophiolite, Circum Troodos Sedimentary Succession, Mamonia Terrane, Kyrenia Terrane) and evaluates its usefulness in Cypriote pottery provenance studies. The clay isotopic signatures from the four zones are compared to each other and to the isotopic composition of various utilitarian pottery wares from three Late Bronze Age sites, respectively located in southern Cyprus (Alassa‐Pano Mandilaris), east Cyprus (Enkomi), and southeast Cyprus (Hala Sultan Tekke). It also explores the potential of this method to better discriminate between potential raw materials used for the production of Base‐ring ware, one of the most characteristic fine pottery of Late Bronze Age Cyprus, which was widely spread in the Eastern Mediterranean (Courtois, 1981; Vaughan, 1991, 1994). Results show that three main lead isotopic fields can be distinguished among the Cypriote clay sources and the comparison of Plain sherds with the clay sources allows discrimination between local products and imports. They also clearly indicate that all the Base‐ring sherds analyzed in this study were made of the clays from the Kathikas Formation that crops out in only limited parts of southwest Cyprus.

A study of the composition and microstructure of silver hoards from Tel Beth-Shean, Tel Dor, and Tel Miqne, Israel

The chemical composition and microstructure of objects excavated in three hoards from the end of the Late Bronze and Iron Age sites in Israel were studied using energy-dispersive x-ray fluorescence analysis and optical metallography. The objects are industrial in origin (scrap or jewelry pieces) and include differently shaped ingots, mainly so-called hacksilber, in various sizes. The primary composition is Ag with typically several percent of Cu and Au and less than 1 % of Pb. The concentrations of these metals in each hoard differ significantly. The microstructure of the hacksilber ingots shows a typical dendritic as-cast structure and a surface cold work deformation, probably caused by chiseling the ingot piece off a larger cast bar. Relatively high concentrations of Au, as in the above samples, were observed previously in Egyptian ancient silver which differs from the ancient Greek silver that contains a significantly lower Au content.

Coupling lead isotope analysis and petrography to characterize fabrics of storage and trade containers from Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus)*

Lead isotopes, thin‐ and sherd‐section analyses are coupled on pottery‐vessel fragments excavated from the Late Bronze Age site of Hala Sultan Tekke (south‐east Cyprus) and representing fabrics used for the production of storage and trade containers. The fabrics of the sherds are first described according to general macroscopic observations. Based on the different fabrics identified, a petrographic analysis is carried out on thin sections and compared to lead isotope results on the same samples. This study shows that a specific fabric corresponds to a specific lead isotopic composition and proposes different sources for the various groups of associated sherds/fabrics. It also demonstrates the compatibility and complementarity of petrography and lead isotopes within pottery provenance study.

Lead isotopic analysis within a multiproxy approach to trace pottery sources. The example of White Slip II sherds from Late Bronze Age sites in Cyprus and Syria

Lead isotope analyses were carried out on fragments of White Slip II ware, a Late Bronze Age Cypriote pottery ware, and on raw materials possibly used for their production. Sherds originate from three Late Bronze Age sites (Hala Sultan Tekke and Sanidha in Cyprus and Minet el-Beida in Syria) and clays come from the surroundings of Sanidha, a production site for White Slip ware. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) are combined with Pb isotope analyses to further investigate the effectiveness of the latter method within a multiproxy approach for pottery provenance study. The pottery sherds from the three sites are compared between themselves and with potential raw material. Additional X-ray diffraction (XRD) and analyses using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray detection (EDX) facility were performed on selected sherds and clays. This work confirms that the clay source used for pottery production in Sanidha derives from local weathered gabbro. It also shows that different origins can be proposed for White Slip II ware sherds from Hala Sultan Tekke and Minet el-Beida and that clays were prepared prior to White Slip II ware production. It finally confirms the effectiveness of Pb isotopes in tracing pottery provenance not only by comparing sherd assemblages but also by comparing sherds to potential raw materials.

Raw Materials and Pottery Production at the Late Bronze and Iron Age Site of Puig de Sa Morisca, Mallorca, Spain

This paper presents an analytical study of LateBronze andIronAge ceramics and natural clay deposits from the archaeological site ofPuig deSa Morisca in southwestMallorca,Spain. In our study, we combine petrographic, micropaleontological, mineralogical (X‐ray powder diffraction) and textural (laser particle size) analyses of sherds and local clays that may have been used as raw material in ceramic production. This approach allowed us to compare the ceramics’ formal characteristics with those observed in nearby plastic clays and assess raw clay procurement and paste preparation. The results indicate the use of local (<500 m distance) calcareous clays throughout theLateBronze andIron ages. This raw material was mixed with other coarser clays or crushed calcite, as well as other calcareous tempers, such as breccias or calcarenites, located close to the site. The results demonstrate that the same clay deposit was used to make ceramic vessels following different technological choices and recipes. Thus, local communities established a strong connection with the same raw materials through time that were located within the potters’ preferential range of exploitation.

Transport Stirrup Jars from the Southern Levant: New Light on Commodity Exchange in the Eastern Mediterranean

This article examines the issue of the distribution of transport stirrup jars found in the Late Bronze Age Levant. These vessels, representing long-range commodity exchange, are presumed to be largely of Cretan origin according to both their appearance and previous archaeometric analyses. However, determining whether non-Minoan sources of such vessels exist and identifying specific locales of production within Crete are ongoing foci of research. In this context, a group of transport stirrup jars from Late Bronze Age sites in Israel, predominantly from the harbor site of Tell Abu Hawam, was subjected to thin-section petrographic analysis. This group includes most of the examples known from this region. The results of the analysis indicate that a large proportion of the vessels, especially those found at Tell Abu Hawam, were produced in central or south-central Crete, although other Cretan and possibly non-Cretan sources also occur. A striking mirroring of this situation occurs on Crete at Kommos, a site exceptionally rich in ceramic imports of all kinds, including Canaanite amphoras produced in the vicinity of Tell Abu Hawam. Possible links between these two sites are discussed, shedding new and interesting light on the nature of bulk commodity exchange in the eastern Mediterranean during the Late Bronze Age. *

LEAD ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF LATE BRONZE AGE POTTERY FROM HALA SULTAN TEKKE (CYPRUS)

Lead isotopic compositions were measured for 65 sherds from five pottery wares (Plain White, Coarse, Canaanite, White Slip and Base-ring) excavated from the Late Bronze Age site of Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus). The elemental composition and isotopic signature of the sherds were compared with those of 65 clay samples collected in south-east Cyprus, mainly in the surroundings (<20 km) of Hala Sultan Tekke. This work shows the effectiveness of using lead isotopic analysis in provenance studies, along with other analytical techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray detection (EDX) facility, to identify the composition of pottery wares and the clay sources used for pottery ware production.

Lathyrus consumption in late Bronze and iron age sites in Israel: an Aegean affinity

This paper presents new evidence, together with previous findings, for the appearance of charred seeds of Lathyrus sativus (grass pea)/ Lathyrus cicera . This grain legume was a food staple in ancient times, principally in the Aegean region, but also appeared sporadically and in a limited way in the archaeological record of the southern Levant. It is encountered there first in the Late Bronze Age but disappears in the record at the end of the Iron Age. Although a palatable, nutritious plant adapted for growing under adverse conditions, its seeds can be toxic when consumed in large quantities. Apparently L. sativus/cicera made its way to the lowlands of the southern Levant, either by trade or with Philistine immigrants. It is absent at other south Levantine Bronze Age (i.e., Canaanite) and Iron Age sites and it remained a food component in the southern coastal region (i.e., Philistia, the region associated with the biblical Philistines) up to the end of Iron Age II, suggesting a possible ethnic association. Evidence of L. sativus/cicera joins that of another Aegean archaeobotanical import from an earlier, Middle Bronze Age II context, Lathyrus clymenum , found at Tel Nami, a coastal site farther to the north of the region.

ISOTOPIC DISCRIMINANTS BETWEEN LATE BRONZE AGE GLASSES FROM EGYPT AND THE NEAR EAST

This paper presents oxygen, strontium and neodymium isotopic analysis from a series of Late Bronze Age glasses from Egypt and Mesopotamia. It was found that oxygen and neodymium isotopes alone cannot readily distinguish between glasses from the various sites. However, combined Sr and Nd isotope analysis separate the data into three groups: an Egyptian group with relatively low Sr and Nd ratios; a Late Bronze Age (LBA) Nuzi group with high Sr and low Nd ratios; and an intermediate Sr and high Nd ratio grouping of glasses from Tell Brak. These findings suggest that most of the glass from Nuzi and Tell Brak had different raw materials and hence the glass was probably produced at different manufacturing sites. However, one glass ingot found at Tell Brak (TB1) appears to have Nuzi‐type Sr–Nd characteristics. This is the first positive identification of multiple production sites in LBA Mesopotamia and an exceptional example of a glass that may have been exchanged from one LBA site to another.

Placing social interaction: An integrative approach to analyzing past built environments

A growing recognition of the vital role that built space plays in social reproduction has created a need for analytical methods and interpretive frameworks with which to investigate this relationship in archaeological datasets. I address this by developing an integrative approach that emphasizes the role of the built environment as the context for interactions through which social structures are created, transformed and reproduced. This approach uses access analysis to examine how buildings structure patterns of movement and encounter that allow social actors to engage in or avoid particular forms of interaction. With its focus on the topological properties of built space, however, access analysis does not take adequate account of a building’s symbolic aspects, especially architectural characteristics and furnishings that social actors mobilize in the creation of meaningful contexts for interaction. I therefore integrate access analysis with an examination of how built environments encode meanings and nonverbally communicate them to inhabitants and visitors, potentially influencing their actions and interactions. The integrative approach allows determination of probable contexts for various types of social interactions during which social identities could be displayed, negotiated and reified. I conclude by demonstrating the potential of this approach with an analysis of the monumental Ashlar Building from the Late Bronze Age (c. 1650–1100 BC) site of Enkomi, Cyprus.

Painted plaster from Bronze Age Thebes, Boeotia (Greece): a technological study

From the rather difficult excavations that have taken place in Thebes since the beginning of the last century, many fragmentary but often well-preserved paintings on plaster have been unearthed. These belong to several contexts and periods: House of Kadmos (Late Helladic IIIA), Treasury Room (Late Helladic IIIB1) and Oikopedon Spourli (Late Helladic III). Their iconography, style and technology fit well with other paintings from the Late Bronze Age sites found in the vicinity of Thebes (e.g. Gla and Orchomenos). This paper presents a technological study of the Bronze Age painted plaster from Thebes, Greece. The paintings were investigated by means of X-ray diffraction; stereo, reflected light and scanning electron microscopy; some by laser-induced breakdown spectrometry and by micro-Raman spectroscopy, in order to identify the pigments and the composition of the plaster layers, and to determine the painting technique(s) that the artisans may have employed. The plaster layer onto which the paint layer was applied was often the only layer and consisted mainly of calcite, while a clay plaster formed the backing between the lime plaster coat and the actual wall surface. The pigments identified were: yellow ochre, haematite (red), cuprorivaite (Egyptian blue), indigo and possibly riebeckite for blue, charcoal (black), calcite (white), and a combination of black and red for purple. A detailed macroscopic study of the painted surface revealed several features, which indicated that the technique of al fresco painting was employed extensively, a technique already in use since the start of the Late Minoan I phase on Crete. A generally lower level of quality in the appearance of the later paintings (Treasury Room and Oikopedon Spourli) was also noted, but this was not reflected in the materials used or in their overall manipulation.

The Biblical Pithom and Tell el-Maskhuta

Recent theories that locate the Biblical Pithom (Exod 1,11) at the Late Bronze Age site of Tell er-Retabah fail to take account of the archaeological evidence and the Greco-Roman literary sources that demonstrate that a well known city called Pithom was located at Tell el-Maskhuta in the Iron Age. That the occurrence of the toponym Pithom in Exod 1,11 is an anachronistic addition to the Exodus tradition is still the best view.

Stable isotope evidence for salt-marsh grazing in the Bronze Age Severn Estuary, UK: implications for palaeodietary analysis at coastal sites

Stable isotope analyses of modern coastal and salt-marsh plant species (‘salt-loving’ plants or halophytes) have demonstrated that these are significantly enriched in 15N compared to other terrestrial plants. Coastal salt-marshes were far more extensive in the past than they are today. They represented a vast and much-exploited resource in many areas of the UK and north-western Europe and were considered to be prime land for the grazing of animal stock. This paper aims to test whether the unusual isotope chemistry of halophytes and other coastal plants allows for the identification of salt-marsh grazing in the past through the stable isotope analysis of herbivore skeletal remains. We present the results of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analysis of bone collagen of herbivores from the middle and late Bronze Age sites of Brean Down, Redwick and Peterstone in the Severn Estuary, UK. Here, direct archaeological evidence indicates salt-marsh grazing as a deliberate herding strategy. The animal bone isotope data from these three Severn Estuary sites are significantly enriched in 15N in comparison to other Holocene faunal data-sets from the UK. We interpret this as evidence that the isotopic signatures of coastal and salt-marsh plants are passed on through the food chain and conclude that stable isotope analysis of animal bone collagen has great potential for investigating salt-marsh or coastal exploitation in the past. Our results also demonstrate that herbivore stable isotope values may vary significantly between different sites and regions within the UK. They underline the necessity for complementary faunal data-sets when undertaking palaeodietary analyses of human remains.

The Palace in the Upper City of Hazor as an Expression of a Syrian Architectural Paradigm

The Late Bronze Age monumental palace complex in the Upper City of Hazor attests to royal construction on the acropolis and contributes to our understanding of the city's layout. The remains revealed so far offer striking testimony to the Kingdom of Hazor's powerful and eminent position at this time. The architectural character of the complex reflects relations with the neighboring states in the north and with Egypt, evincing the exchange of both ideas and artisans, especially with Syria. The close affinity of the Hazor complex with the architectural traditions of the latter is mainly apparent in the buildings whose functions were ceremonial. In terms of architectural techniques and decoration, they are similar to the palace at Qatna, while the ground plan of Hazor's ceremonial palace resembles that of the palace at Alalakh IV. The recurrence of this master plan at two Late Bronze Age sites suggests that the bit-hilani (normally associated with the Iron Age) had already become the paradigm of ceremonial palaces in the Levant.

The distinction between freshwater- and terrestrial-based diets: methodological concerns and archaeological applications of sulphur stable isotope analysis

Sulphur isotopes in archaeological bone collagen are not routinely analysed in palaeodietary studies. Here we investigate the potential contribution that sulphur isotope analysis can provide toward the study of ancient human diet and economy, with particular emphasis on the distinction between freshwater and terrestrial consumers. For material from the Late Bronze Age site of Chicha in the south-western Eurasian forest-steppe, sulphur isotopes effectively separate freshwater and terrestrial animal food resources. The sulphur isotope data coupled with nitrogen isotope values from Chicha reflect a dietary reliance upon freshwater animal protein (fish) for the Late Bronze Age inhabitants. In contrast, sulphur isotope values for freshwater and terrestrial potential food species from the Eneolithic site of Bil'shivtsi in western Ukraine were indistinguishable, demonstrating that δ 34S values cannot always be relied upon to identify freshwater and terrestrial consumers. The data from this study support the adoption of δ 34S analysis as a standard component of palaeodietary studies; apart from its potential to distinguish freshwater from terrestrial consumers, it can provide supplementary dietary information not evident from the carbon and nitrogen isotope data. In addition, certain indices are considered that may be used to assess the validity of sulphur isotope data, as currently exist for carbon and nitrogen. According to the analysis of modern collagen samples, N:S appears to be a broad indicator of collagen sulphur isotope quality. However, more work needs to be done to establish an effective means by which highly-altered sulphur isotope values can be identified and thereby removed from consideration.

Bioarchaeological analysis of cultural transition in the southern Levant using dental nonmetric traits

To many Near Eastern archaeologists, the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age transition in the southern Levant indicates the emergence of a new ethnicity. The question remains, however, whether changes in the material culture are the result of an invasion of foreigners, or instead arose from shifting cultural and technical practices by indigenous peoples. This study utilized dental morphological traits to assess phenetic relationships between the Late Bronze Age site of Dothan (1500-1100 BC) and the Iron Age II site of Lachish (Tell ed-Duweir, 701 BC). Information on 30 dental crown and root traits was collected for 4,412 teeth, representing 392 individuals from Lachish and a minimum of 121 individuals from Dothan, using the Arizona State University Dental Anthropology System. Seventeen traits from Dothan and Lachish were compared with dentitions from a Byzantine Jerusalem monastery, Iron Age Italy, a Natufian group (early agrarians from the Levant), and a Middle Kingdom Egyptian site using C.A.B. Smith's mean measure of divergence statistic. The findings suggest that there are more similarities between Dothan and Lachish than either of them and other sites. This analysis indicates that the material culture changes were not the result of a foreign invasion. Rather, the Iron Age people of the southern Levant were related to their Bronze Age predecessors.

Problems of the Chronology of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Sites in Eastern Georgia (Kvemo Sasireti Hoard)

Problems of the Chronology of Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age Sites in Eastern Georgia (Kvemo Sasireti Hoard)

The Emergence of Fishing Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean region : A survey of Evidence from Pre- and Protohistoric Periods

The present overview deals with the fish remains found at Palaeolithic to Late Bronze Age sites in the Eastern Mediterranean. Attention is focussed on both marine and continental fisheries in Anatolia, the Levant and Mesopotamia. After presenting a detailed inventory of the archaeofaunal data available in the literature, an attempt is made to document diachronic trends in marine exploitation and continental fishing of the region. The use offish in ritual and religious practices is dealt with briefly and attention is also paid to fish as trade items.

Processed cereals and pulses from the Late Bronze Age site of Akrotiri, Thera; preparations prior to consumption: a preliminary approach to their study

All ground cereal and pulse plant material from the site of Akrotiri, Thera was studied through a binocular stereoscope microscope in order to detect its nature and its processing stage. The presence of various processed crops was detected, such as barley, wheat and probably legume flour. The very rare occurrence of these finds from archaeological sites forces us to define them and prepare an appropriate methodology of research.

Les habitats du Bronze final de Portal Vielh à Vendres (Hérault)

Due to the building of a new housing estate alongside the Etang de Vendres (Hérault) excavations were carried out on part of the Late Bronze Age site of Portal Vielh. Two excavation campaigns conducted in 1996 and 1997 brought to light three distinct occupation levels, all dating back to the end of the Bronze Age. The earliest corresponds to Late Bronze Age II: pits, post holes and packing material have been discovered together with a palaeo-soil which was well-preserved in places. The Late Bronze Age Ilia settlement is characterised by the good state of preservation of its soil as well as a large quantity of post packing material. It has been impossible to draw any coherent plans except one structure which may have been a raised storehouse. The Late Bronze Age Illb witnessed a change in the area: the digging of a surrounding ditch, specialisation of the site in the production of ceramics... Thanks to the analysis of the numerous dwelling structures discovered on this site, it has been possible, due to the spatial structuring and the development of artisanal productions, to improve our knowledge of Late Bronze Age societies.