Late 18th-century France Research Articles

Enlightenment Response: A Study of Rational Spirit in the Works of Jean-Honoré Fragonard

This paper utilizes Jean-Honoré Fragonard’s paintings, housed in collections across Europe and North America, as primary source material. Employing methods from art history, social art history, literary analysis, and intellectual history, the study aims to explore the connections between Fragonard’s artistic philosophy, the social context of 18th-century France, and the cultural trends of the time. The paper investigates Fragonard’s response to Enlightenment and rationality through his paintings. The results indicate that, situated in an era oscillating between Rococo and realistic styles, Fragonard’s works provide a glimpse into the social and cultural milieu of late 18th-century France. Driven by the spirit of reason, Fragonard created a series of landscapes and genre paintings. Simultaneously, his sensitivity to emotions rendered his works vivid and dynamic, embodying the collaborative interplay of sensibility and reason.

Steinlen, the Police, and the (In)Justice System in Fin-de-Siècle France

Abstract In writing about the police force in late 19th-century France, the anarchist Jean Grave decried that it was in fact necessary, if only to uphold the decisions of the unjust magistracy and to protect the interests of the bourgeoisie. This essay explores his claim through the graphic work of the Franco-Swiss artist Théophile-Alexandre Steinlen, a member of Grave's intellectual circle. Steinlen collaborated with radical leftist performers, authors, and publishers, including Grave, to produce a wealth of images that reveal his keen sensitivity to the social and political inequities of his time. Notably, Steinlen's emigration to Paris in 1881 coincided with a period of marked class antagonism in the capital, largely exacerbated by the policies of the state and their most visible enforcers: the police. Steinlen's incisive illustrations combat the uneven treatment of the lower classes by French police officers and the justice system at large, highlighting the oppressive and relentless nature of the judicial machine infernale while offering possibilities for its disruption or subversion.

Normality: A collection of essays

This article introduces a collection of articles written in response to a recently published intellectual and cultural history of normality by Peter Cryle and Elizabeth Stephens. It points to the fact that this special issue considerably extends and enriches the topical range of the book. The articles that follow discuss, in order, schooling in France at the time of the Revolution, phrenology in Europe and the US from 1840 to 1940, relations between commercial practice and scientific craniometry in 19th-century Britain and France, psychology in late 19th-century France, case studies in sexology and psychoanalysis in Central Europe, and biotypology in Southern Europe and Latin America.

The Artists’ Resale Right Directive 2001/84/EC: A means of targeted intervention for visual artists

AbstractThe antecedents of the artists’ resale right (ARR) can be traced back to late 19th century France, the droit de suite, as it then was, was as much a welfare right as it was a response to the failures of the French droit d'Auteur system to adequately reward visual artist for their creative endeavours. Today, the success of the ARR may be attested to by its prominence in international law, however, this internationalisation has not brought with it uniformity. The European experience speaks to this; under the harmonisation framework of the Artists’ Resale Right Directive 2001/84, Member States are granted significant scope in its implementation and accordingly ARR models have come to pass which encompass a social security function reflective of the original French formulation. This article, by drawing on the social history of visual artists, and by considering the nature of the ARR and its predecessor the droit de suite, argues that socially orientated ARR models, which exist in Germany and Norway, represents a modern formulation of the droit de suite which more fully responds to the needs of visual artists today.

Periodical amnesia and dédoublement in case-reasoning: Writing psychological cases in late 19th-century France

The psychoanalytical case history was in many ways the pivot point of John Forrester’s reflections on case-based reasoning. Yet the Freudian case is not without its own textual forebears. This article closely analyses texts from two earlier case-writing traditions in order to elucidate some of the negotiations by which the case history as a textual form came to articulate the mode of reasoning that we now call ‘thinking in cases’. It reads Eugène Azam’s 1876 observation of Félida X and her ‘double personality’—the case that brought both Azam and Félida to prominence in late 19th-century French science—against a medico-surgical case penned by the Bordeaux physician in the same decade. While the stylistics of Azam’s medical case mirror its epistemic underpinnings in the ‘vertical’ logics of positivist science, the multiple narratives interwoven in Félida’s case grant both Azam and his patient the role of knowledge-making actors in the text. This narrative transformation chimes with the way Azam reasons ‘horizontally’ from particulars to Félida’s singular condition, but sits in tension with his choice to structure the observation along a ‘vertical’ axis. Between the two, we glimpse the emergence of the psychological observation as a mode of writing and thus of thinking in cases.

The Toll of Tariffs: Protectionism, Education and Fertility in Late 19th Century France

This paper examines a novel negative impact of trade tariffs and the costs they induce by documenting how protectionism reversed the long-term improvements in education and the fertility transition that were well under way in late 19th-century France. The Meline tariff, a tariff on cereals introduced in 1892, was a major protectionist shock that shifted relative prices in favor of agriculture and away from industry. In a context in which the latter was more intensive in skills than agriculture, the tariff reduced the relative return to education, which in turn affected parents' decisions about the quantity and quality of children. We use regional differences in the importance of cereal production in the local economy to estimate the impact of the tariff. Our findings indicate that the tariff reduced enrolment in primary education and increased birth rates and fertility. The magnitude of these effects was substantial, with the tariff offsetting the increasing trend in enrolment rates and the decreasing one in birth rates by a decade.

The Toll of Tariffs: Protectionism, Education and Fertility in Late 19th Century France

This paper examines a novel negative impact of trade tariffs and the costs they induce by documenting how protectionism reversed the long-term improvements in education and the fertility transition that were well under way in late 19th-century France. The Meline tariff, a tariff on cereals introduced in 1892, was a major protectionist shock that shifted relative prices in favor of agriculture and away from industry. In a context in which the latter was more intensive in skills than agriculture, the tariff reduced the relative return to education, which in turn affected parents' decisions about the quantity and quality of children. We use regional differences in the importance of cereal production in the local economy to estimate the impact of the tariff. Our findings indicate that the tariff reduced enrolment in primary education and increased birth rates and fertility. The magnitude of these effects was substantial, with the tariff offsetting the increasing trend in enrolment rates and the decreasing one in birth rates by a decade.

Концепция реализма Эжена-Мельхиора де Вогюэ в контексте споров о реализме в современном литературоведении

<p>В статье анализируются основные положения концепции реализма, изложенные в книге французского литератора и дипломата Э.-М. де Вогюэ (1848‒1910) «Русский роман» (1886). Книга Вогюэ рассматривается как та точка в истории литературы, где начата атака на реализм с позиций «неомистицизма».</p><p>Показано, что Вогюэ рассматривал французский реализм как знаменательное социокультурное явление, отразившее кризис европейского гуманизма на рубеже XIX‒XX вв., и противопоставил ему в качестве положительного примера русский роман, исполненный сочувствия и милосердия к человеку. Критика французского реализма в книге Вогюэ вписана в контекст религиозно-философских взглядов писателя и «католического возрождения» во Франции конца XIX в.</p><p>Статья ставит под сомнение правомерность попыток некоторых современных литературоведов маргинализовать реализм или вовсе отрицать его существование. С этой целью реконструирована история возникновения и бытования слова «реализм» в XIX в.</p><p> В статье высказывается идея, что современные атаки на реализм являются попыткой его дискредитации как мировоззрения и художественной системы, явившейся наиболее полным и последовательным выражением ценностей проекта модерн. Аннигиляция реализма в современном литературоведении — пренебрегающая принципом историзма проекция современной постмодернистской парадигмы на эпоху модерна.</p>

The fear of simulation: Scientific authority in late 19th-century French disputes over hypnotism

This article interrogates the way/s in which rival schools studying hypnotism in late 19th-century France framed what counts as valid evidence for the purposes of science. Concern over the scientific reality of results is particularly situated in the notion of simulation (the faking of results); the respective approaches to simulation of the Salpêtrière and Nancy schools are analysed through close reading of key texts: Binet and Féré for the Salpêtrière, and Bernheim for Nancy. The article reveals a striking divergence between their scientific frames, which helps account for the bitterness of the schools’ disputes. It then explores Bernheim’s construction of scientific authority in more detail, for insights into the messiness entailed by theorizing hypnotism in psychical terms, while also attempting to retain scientific legitimacy. Indicative of this messiness, it is argued, is the way in which Bernheim’s (apparently inconsistent) approach draws on multiple epistemic frames.

18세기말 프랑스의 모드 상인(Marchande de modes) 연구

This study is the first research that examines the fashion manufacturers and merchants of the late 18th century France. Fashion specialists, (known as) Marchande de modes, started to appear in literature in the mid 18thcenturyandthe profession was officially recognized by the guild system in 1776. Rose Bertin was elected as the first representative. At the same time, there were two types of fashion specialists, tailleur and couturi<TEX>${\grave{e}}$</TEX>re. Tailleur had monopolized the production of the bodice and the skirt, which were the most important female dress parts. On the contrary, couturi<TEX>${\grave{e}}$</TEX>re only had the right to make petticoats, but they were not allowed to decorate it. In 1781, the couturi<TEX>${\grave{e}}$</TEX>re obtained the right to make and decorate the other parts of the dress, and this resulted in the two groups fighting over the rights to make dresses. And during this struggle, the Marchand de modes started to appear as a new occupation. Marchande de modes were privileged fashion merchants making or selling trimmings for dress and coiffure, and had authority to make capes and bonnets. Contemporary critics praised their talents for creating innovative and beautiful fashion styles, while some criticized them as women who just made luxury items. These records revealed how marchande de modes were viewed during that time.

Journalism and the diffusion of anti-Semitism in the late 19th century France Edouard Drumont and La France juive

Journalism and the diffusion of anti-Semitism in the late 19th century France Edouard Drumont and La France juive

An Itinerant Mesmerist

Mesmerism had its roots in late 18th century France, but it was not until the 1830s in Britain that it was systematically applied to the problem of pain. The application of mesmerism in the clinical setting was extremely contentious and it was with some relief that doctors turned to the far more consistent results of chemical anaesthesia. However, though mesmerism were superseded by chemical anaesthetic agents in many areas of application, mesmerism continued to have a life during the second half of the 19th century. In the 1850s, the decade following the introduction of ether and chloroform, Dr John Elliotson established the London Mesmeric Infirmary, in which he used mesmerism both therapeutically and for pain relief, and established a training programme for apprentice mesmerists. In the mid-1890s on the other side of the globe, Mr Newham Waterworth travelled from Tasmania up the east coast of Australia, performing public demonstrations of mesmerism for pain relief during dental extractions. The first of these took place in Hobart in 1890, more than 40 years after many in Britain had declared mesmerism dead. The extractions were performed by respected dentists and, according to witnesses, Waterworth's mesmerism produced the same effects of insensibility to pain as ether and chloroform. With an examination of the continued application of mesmerism after the advent of chemical anaesthesia, this paper will focus on the work of Newham Waterworth in the 1890s and speculate as to why mesmerism might have resurfaced to some appeal in the Australian colonies in this period.

Regionalisation: Probing the urban landscape of the Great Lakes Region

Over 40 million people live within the watershed region of the Great Lakes in North America, the largest body of fresh water on the planet. During the past two centuries the region has been given a series of idiosyncratic designations such as the Great Cutover, the Manufacturing Belt, the Rust Belt, the Great Lakes Megalopolis and the Megaregion by well-known urbanists from Patrick Geddes to Jean Gottmann. Emblematic of different processes of colonisation, industrialisation and urbanisation, these historical characterisations reveal a landscape of geo-economic significance beyond the conventional limits of the city while testifying to a deeper ontology of regionalist canons whose focus is the hydrophysical system of the Great Lakes. Referencing a series of overlooked plans, projects and processes, this essay demonstrates how the Great Lakes Region is a macrocosm of change, a case study in the urban transformation of the continent with relevance to other parts of the industrialised world such as France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Russia, Japan and Australia. As a revival of the revolutionary régionalisme of Jean Charles-Brun in late 19th-century France and as a challenge to contested globalisation identified by Saskia Sassen at the end of the 20th century, this essay proposes that the regionalisation of ecological, economic and political conditions is of crucial significance to the global discourse on urbanisation.

Fashion Images of the France Posters of the Late 19th Century

This article analyzed fashion representations in France posters, especially the late 19th century France when mass consumption cultures arose. That was analyzed by consumers' sexuality supposed in advertisement contents. Female models mainly figured in posters of the late 19th century France made a role to promote consumption, in which female models were emphasized on fashion, for example, erotic robe, unusual hair style and etc. Posters' type in this period were categorized in three types by presenting style of female body and fashion style. The first were targeting female consumers, and that posters represented bourgeois fashion styles and life styles to clear consumers' social status and to present women's consuming power. The second case was targeting male consumers, and that posters figured female models such as available products. In this case, poster artists emphasized female models' sexualities and used fantasies against eroticism of the legs and feet. And third case was targeting female consumers and males', in this case, two different aspects were required to appealing to consumers. One was to use a female sexuality to appeal for male consumers, the other was to modify female models as transcendental being such like a muse admirable and mysterious, through fashion styles for female consumers. In the late 19th century, female body and fashion were spectacular elements in visual arts specifically. This study clarified representations of female body and fashion in the late 19th century posters according to poster's contents and target consumer's sexuality. This was one of the aspects characterizing early advertisement media.

The Intellectual Origins of Modern Democratic Republicanism (1660–1720)

Arguably, the tradition of democratic republican theory which arose in the Dutch Republic in the years around 1660 in the writings of Johan and Pieter de la Court, Franciscus van den Enden and Spinoza played a decisively important role in the development of modern democratic political theory. The tradition did not end with Spinoza but continued to develop in the United Provinces and–in the work of Bernard Mandeville, who seemingly belongs more to the Dutch than the British republican tradition–in London, down to the early 18th century. The failure in most histories of republicanism to appreciate how strikingly different intellectually, and as an ideology, the Dutch tradition was from the Anglo-American republican tradition, has had the effect of obscuring its central importance in the development of radical republicanism in mid- and late 18th-century France.

The Myth of Old European Feminism: The Importance of Socio-Cultural Contextual Analysis

The authors point to the necessity of using contextual analysis when considering the interpretation of myth and social structure as it relates to issues of gender. This type of analysis is of particular importance when interpreting the cultural meaning of socio-cultural artifacts of ancient civilizations. Otherwise, we may impose the perspective of current socially constructed myth systems when interpreting the past. Viewing ancient cultures through contemporary paradigm/myth systems may lead to biased interpretations. In order to demonstrate the importance of contextual analysis and the possible errors that can result from using a predetermined, contemporary cultural perspective, a fictional account of interpretations of socio-cultural artifacts from late 19th century France is presented.

Freemasonry and party building in late 19th-Century France

At the beginning of the 20th century, the French Third Republic political system was still composed only of parliamentary groups and politically oriented voluntary organisations. No modern political parties existed yet. The formation of the Radical Party in 1901 created a new political order in France. From that year on, the Third Republic was to possess, like the USA and Britain, a modern political party system. Who created the Radical Party, and how? The French Freemasonry was the major actor in that it formed the Radical Party using two political instruments developed throughout most of the 19th century. These are the 'regional Masonic congresses' and the 'civil leadership model'. This article analyses the way French Free masonry moulded these tools and used them in creating the Radical Party.

Archaeological arguments in national debates in late 19th-century France: Gabriel de Mortillet's La Formation de la nation française (1897)

Chauvinist reactions were rife in late 19th-century France, following the 1870 defeat to Prussia, the unification of Germany and the annexation of Alsace and part of Lorraine to the new empire. Besides their political manifestations, as in the creation of the Ligue des patriotes in 1882, these reactions also received intellectual expression. For most of the cultivated elites, the revelation of Prussian militarism came to negate the prevailing image of Germany as the cosmopolitan heartland of philosophy and of amodel university system. The French military defeat was interpreted as a sign of the political and moral weakness of the regime of Napoleon I11 (Renan 18711, but also as a wider symptom of intellectual inferiority, itself due to the inadequacies of the French educational and university structure. There ensued in intellectual circles a veritable ‘German crisis of French thought’ (Digeon 1959).

The Tooth Puller [L'arracheur de dents

FROM THE MIDDLE AGES through the early 19th century, tooth pulling was often performance art. Barber-surgeons cut hair, set bones, let blood, and pulled teeth. Toothache could be treated with leeches, blistering, cupping, and laxatives, as well as with prescriptions of lizard liver, green frogs, and a urine gargle.1 Opium mixtures were popular painkillers. When refined sugar became widely available in the 17th century, dental caries became common. For more desperate sufferers, itinerant tooth pullers set up shop in marketplaces and at fairs. The “dentist” and his assistants attracted a crowd by telling stories, singing and dancing, performing tricks, or juggling. The tooth puller's assistant was usually dressed as a clown or a harlequin, with a pointed hat on which was inscribed the insignia of Saint Apollonia, the patron saint of toothache sufferers. In more elaborate cases, such as the one depicted in this image from late 18th-century France, the tooth puller (arracheur de dents) had a stage as well as 2 assistants. The music that they provided attracted the crowd and also helped to drown out the cries of the patient. The tooth extraction was an essential part of the entertainment. The public setting provided considerable drama and let the gathered crowd judge the skill of the “dentist.” If he were smooth enough—if he could extract teeth without causing too much pain—others might volunteer as patients. Many artists tried to capture the pomp, pageantry, and pain of early dentistry. This etching was created by Jean Duplessis-Bertaux (1747–1819), a well-known artist and engraver who chronicled many scenes of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era.

Making Things the Same

This paper documents the connection between the technological and political transformations of late 18th-century France. Its subject is the efforts of state military engineers to produce functionally identical artifacts (interchangeable parts manufacturing). These efforts faced resistance from artisans and merchants attached to the corporate-absolutist ancien régime, for whom artifacts were idiosyncratic, and `thick' with multiple meanings. I argue that to oblige artisans to produce standardized artifacts, the military engineers defined these artifacts with instruments such as technical drawing and the tools of manufacturing tolerance, which the engineers then refined in increasingly rule-bound ways to forestall further subversion by artisans. Hence, I offer a historical account of how the `objectivity' of these artifacts was the outcome of social conflict and negotiation over the terms of an exchange. In particular, I explain why engineers eventually turned to projective drawings (including the descriptive geometry) over alternative ways of representing artifacts (such as free-hand, academic, and perspectival drawings). And I document the origins of manufacturing tolerance, in which the dimensions of an artifact were circumscribed with gauges and machine-tools to preclude possible sources of disagreement. The paper closes with its own `thick' narrative of how standards of production emerged out of social conflict in a particular community on the eve of the French Revolution - a process which reflected the emerging political `toleration' of the French state for its citizen-producers. The SCOT programme can be used to provide a political account of how the operation of seemingly `objective' artifacts can be coordinated across vast physical, temporal and cultural boundaries.