Large Cave Research Articles

Lower-Middle Ordovician Cave-Reservoir Characters and Dominant Factors in Southern Tahe Oil Field

It is discussed characteristic and dominant factors of lower-middle Ordovician cave-reservoir in southern Tahe oilfield by analyzing data such as core, well drilling, logging, and seismic systematically, and by applying reservoir identifying, wells comparing, section of seismic analyzing, and ancient physiognomy recovering technology in this article. Three cave layers effected by the early hercynian karstification have been discovered in the study area. In single well section, the cave layer with strong heterogeneity corresponds with the Karst cycle with six combinations. The cave layers dominated by the early hercynian unconformity concentrate under0-200metre of the unconformity surface. The nearer to the unconformity surface, the more caves are filled. With effecting of fracture, the caves layers, especially larger cave, are often discovered in fractures concentrated zone. With effecting of ancient physiognomy, the caves layers are often in gentle carbonate slope. The unconformity, regional fractures and ancient physiognomy are the dominant factors of lower-middle Ordovician cave-reservoir in southern Tahe oil field.

The Particularity of Prehistoric Culture in Vlora Region (Albania)

Vlora area is lying to the southwest of Albania, it also carries a wealth of archaeological sites of all periods and in particular it is characterized by specific archaeological site of prehistoric culture, the particularities of which are rare in our country, in Balkan and Europe. By the given observations, research, documentation and comparisons, we have been able to distinguish this area from the others in terms of specific elements of the locality contains prehistoric culture. In this region is proved that Paleolithic human activity in the early phase of this era which has been lacking in prehistoric archaeological central sites of our country. In the area of Vlora, there is the only evidence in the form of a megalithic stone table (Dolmen) in village of Vranisht. AtVelca village we have large complex natural karst caves used for housing by primitive man during the Neolithic era. In Lepenica village of Vlora, there is the largest rock painting in our country and more specific in terms of its composition compared less with other site in Europe in terms of prehistoric scope. This art shows us for the ancient beliefs, for life, for real-world perception of the creators of this imaginary rock painting.The region of Vlora has no cultural gap, it contains all the archaeological and historical periods. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2014.v3n4p49

Lithic assemblages of Azokh Cave (Nagorno Karabagh, Lesser Caucasus): Raw materials, technology and regional context

Azokh Cave is a Middle Pleistocene to Holocene site located in Nagorno Karabagh (Lesser Caucasus). The main entrance, Azokh 1, is a large cave that has two geological sequences (lower and upper) with nine geo-archaeological units of which only the upper ones (Units I to V) have a significant archaeological record. The faunal remains and lithic artefacts in these units indicate aspects of human occupation, and exploitation of, and association with animals. The lithic artefacts presented here were recovered from Units V, III and II during the 2002 – 2009 excavation seasons. The available chronological data indicates an age between 293 – 100 Ka for these units. The operational chain is incomplete and artefacts found in the cave are primarily end-products dominated by flake-tools. The assemblage of Unit V is composed primarily of simple, unretouched flakes with a minimal presence of retouched flakes and cores. The Unit II lithic assemblage includes a substantial Levallois component, although with fewer cores and retouched flakes. There are very few flake tools in Unit III. While it is still difficult to assign the Unit V assemblage to a techno-typological group or complex (i.e. Acheulean, Mousterian or other local techno-complexes such as the Kudarian), the Unit II assemblage is clearly associated with Mode 3 or the Mousterian techno-complex.Different local and non-local raw materials were exploited in all units for the production of lithic artefacts, although the range of raw materials is more varied in Unit II. Local chert, flint and basalt were used most commonly, probably due to their easy accessibility. Limestone, jasper and sandstone, from local and non-local sources, are present in small quantities in Units V and II. Obsidian is the only raw material that possibly originates from more distant sources. Flint and chert appear to have been preferentially exploited for flake tool production in all units, but the toolmakers show a preference for better quality raw material (flint, basalt, obsidian) for retouched pieces in Units V and II, and for Levallois production in Unit II.

The conservation status of bats in Fiji

AbstractBats provide important ecosystem services throughout the South Pacific but many species are threatened. The Fiji archipelago has a rich bat fauna yet few arrangements exist to promote the conservation of this group. From July 2008 to March 2011 we visited important sites identified in previous surveys for bats on Vanua Levu, Taveuni, Viti Levu and the Yasawa Islands. We netted and recorded five of Fiji's six bat species (Pteropus tonganus, Pteropus samoensis nawaiensis, Notopteris macdonaldi, Chaerephon bregullae and the Critically Endangered Mirimiri acrodonta). This was only the sixth recorded capture of M. acrodonta. P. tonganus is widespread in Fiji and exploits many different environments. P. samoensis nawaiensis mostly uses forested areas, and large tracts of forest are required for its long-term protection. Cave protection is vital for the two insectivorous species (C. bregullae and Emballonura semicaudata) and N. macdonaldi. In particular, the Nakanacagi maternity site remains globally significant for C. bregullae. E. semicaudata was not caught or detected during our surveys. It appears to be extinct from most large islands in Fiji and has abandoned the only large cave roost (Yaqeta) observed 10 years ago. This species has disappeared from or declined dramatically on Vanuatu, Samoa, Tonga and Fiji. We recommend that the category of E. semicaudata semicaudata on the IUCN Red List be changed to Critically Endangered. Management priorities should focus on community engagement and education, and improved cave and forest management and protection.

Synchrotron X-Ray Microanalysis and Imaging of Synthetic Biological Calcium Carbonate in Comparison With Archaeological Samples Originating from the Large Cave of Arcy-sur-Cure (28000-24500 BP, Yonne, France)

Biosynthetic calcite samples were investigated using combined synchrotron X-ray microspectroscopy mapping. These samples were prepared with bacteria isolated from the Large cave of Arcy-sur-Cure in which prehistoric figures are masked by an opaque calcite layer. The biotic or abiotic origin of this layer is the issue of the present work. As previously known, a large community of bacteria may be involved in the CaCO3 formation in caves. A mixture of calcite/vaterite was obtained from bacteria isolated from the cave. Therefore, we can offer conclusions on their calcifying capability. The rare presence of vaterite in cave environments may be treated as a marker of biotic carbonate formations. Moreover, an amorphous calcium phosphate phase was present in the form of a calcite/vaterite mixture in the biotic model samples. This mixture of phases could be used as a tracer of the biotic process of CaCO3 formation. These biotic tracer phases were not identified using the applied analytical methods in the natural samples taken from the opaque calcite layers that covered the prehistoric figures of the Large cave. In this case, based on the obtained results, the biotic calcite formation process is likely to be considered as an undetectable effect at minimum.

Late Pleistocene leopards across Europe – northernmost European German population, highest elevated records in the Swiss Alps, complete skeletons in the Bosnia Herzegowina Dinarids and comparison to the Ice Age cave art

European leopard sites in Europe demonstrate Early/Middle Pleistocene out of Africa lowland, and Late Pleistocene Asian alpine migrations being driven by climatic changes. Four different European Pleistocene subspecies are known. The final European Late Pleistocene “Ice Age leopard” Panthera pardus spelaea (Bächler, 1936) is validated taxonomically. The skull shows heavy signs of sexual dimorphism with closest cranial characters to the Caucasian Panthera pardus ciscaucasica (Persian leopard). Late Pleistocene leopards were distributed northernmost, up to S-England with the youngest stratigraphic records by skeletons and cave art in the MIS 2/3 (about 32,000–26,000 BP). The oldest leopard painting left by Late Palaeolithics (Aurignacians/Gravettians) in the Chauvet Cave (S-France) allows the reconstruction of the Ice Age leopard fur spot pattern being close to the snow or Caucasian leopards. The last Ice Age glacial leopard habitat was the mountain/alpine boreal forest (not mammoth steppe lowland), where those hunted even larger prey such as alpine game (Ibex, Chamois). Into some lairs, those imported their prey by short-term cave dwelling (e.g. Baumann's Cave, Harz Mountains, Germany). Only Eurasian Ice Age leopards specialized, similar as other Late Pleistocene large felids (steppe lions), on cave bear predation/scavenging partly very deep in caves. In Vjetrenica Cave (Dinarid Mountains, Bosnia Herzegovina), four adult leopards (two males/two females) of the MIS 3 were found about two km deep from the entrance in a cave bear den, near to one cave bear skeleton, that remained articulated in its nest. Leopards died there, partly being trapped by raising water levels of an active ponor stream, but seem to have been killed possibly either, similar as for lions known, in battles with cave bears in several cave bear den sites of Europe (e.g. Baumann's Cave, Wildkirchli Cave, Vjetrenica Cave). At other large cave sites, with overlap of hyena, wolf and dhole dens at the cave entrances, leopard bones with bite damages indicate their remains to have been imported and consumed by predators in alpine regions due to reduced prey availability. The best models for the competition/taphonomy of large predators – felids, hyenids, canids – within large cave bear dens of Europe is represented in combination of the Zoolithen Cave and Vjetrenica Cave taphonomy.

Shallow caves and blowholes on the Nullarbor Plain, Australia — Flank margin caves on a low gradient limestone platform

The Nullarbor Plain of southern Australia is a very extensive limestone platform with relatively few large caves for its size, but contains thousands of blowholes, sub-circular vertical shafts up to 1–2m in diameter, which often connect to similar-sized sub-horizontal passages. Recent detailed systematic surveys of large areas of the Nullarbor Plain have provided new distribution data showing that blowholes and associated shallow caves are concentrated in a 25–30km-wide band located >75km inland. The known density of these features (up to 43/25km2) underestimates the cave porosity because the strong draughts blowing from many of the blowholes indicate that they connect to extensive cave systems of small passages. These shallow caves are relict phreatic features; their entrances (blowholes) were opened as the land surface was lowered by denudation. The band of blowholes and caves is located along the Late Miocene (~6Ma) shoreline across the Nullarbor, when there was a eustatic stillstand. The caves formed in the zone of enhanced dissolution at the seaward margin of the freshwater lens along the carbonate coastline, and can therefore be regarded as flank margin caves on a low gradient limestone platform; a flank margin setting relatively unknown prior to this study. The width of the band of flank margin caves, which is substantially greater than previously documented for this cave type, reflects the very low gradient of both the ground surface and water table, together with the influence of tidal fluctuations and regression of the shoreline. Flank margin cave development stopped when the sea retreated rapidly in the Late Miocene–Early Pliocene due to a period of tilting and uplift. The band of flank margin caves has high permeability and substantial porosity, and would therefore form an excellent, largely overlooked, type of palaeokarst petroleum reservoir.

Subterranean Watercourses may ‘Rescue’ Seeds Dispersed by Fruit-Eating Bats in Caves

Seeds of several plant species are frequently wasted, if dispersed to unsuitable microsites. Some microsites, such as the interior of large caves, are unsafe for animal-dispersed seeds. However, sometimes a second dispersal agent may give these seeds a second chance of survival, thus playing the role of ‘seed rescuer’. We tested this hypothesis by investigating the seed fate of plant species dispersed by fruit-eating bats in an Amazonian cave and by evaluating whether those seeds could be rescued by a subterranean watercourse. We measured seed arrival at the ground and the watercourse. We also collected seeds coming out of the cave through the watercourse. Banara sp. was the most abundant morphospecies, followed by Cecropia sp., Solanum sp. and Vismia sp. We collected 1,751 seeds of seven morphospecies in water. Cecropia sp. was the most abundant species. Experimental data showed that on average 37% of the seeds of Banara, Vismia, and Cecropia leaving the cave were viable. A second experiment detected dif...

Hydrogeologic and topographic controls on evolution of karst features in Illinois’ sinkhole plain

In the sinkhole plain of southwestern Illinois, the size and morphology of cover-collapse sinkholes can be used as an indicator of the size of the associated underlying crevice/conduit system. Sinkholes that lead to relatively small crevices and small conduit systems (sinkhole volumes >103 m3, but <105 m3) typically are found in areas with relatively high water tables and, based on storage capacity of conduits and secondary porosity of adjacent bedrock, are incapable of accepting large, rapidly inflowing volumes of surface-water runoff without backflooding. Once flooded, sinkholes become low-energy environments and sites of deposition of fine sediments; consequently, their growth potential (via erosion by runoff within and at the margins of the sinkhole) is limited. Conversely, in those areas where sinkholes lead to relatively large, branchwork-type cave systems, water tables are typically deeper and the storage capacities of the cave system and adjacent bedrock can be one or more orders of magnitude greater. Because these large cave systems can accept greater volumes of rapidly inflowing runoff without backflooding, the sinkholes associated with large cave systems typically become sites of extensive erosion. The aerial extent of a sinkhole draining to large cave systems may continue to increase and incorporate other sinkholes within its drainage area, thereby creating large, compound sinkholes up to 30 ha in area. These sinkholes can have direct or indirect connections to cave passages and have volumes that can be as small as 104 m3 and as large as 106 m3. Beneath the glacial till and loess cover, and in the vicinity of the largest cover-collapse sinkholes, irregularities in bedrock topography appear to have had an effect on the location of the initiation of large caves in the sinkhole plain. The coincidence of bedrock depressions and swales in close proximity to the initiation point of the large caves suggests that focused recharge to fractures leading to bedding-plane partings in bedrock played a major role in the initiation and evolution of the large branchwork-type caves of Illinois’ sinkhole plain.

Small Caves and Sacred Geography: A Case Study from the Prehispanic Maya Site of Maax Na, Belize

AbstractContemporary research on prehispanic Maya landscapes has focused on caves as core features of the cultural geography. Investigations within a number of large caves have suggested that they served as the loci for important rituals, legitimized inhabitants’ claims to their territory, and helped establish the authority of a site’s ruling elite. The ubiquity and centrality of caves in the Maya worldview raises questions about what happened in regions where large caves did not naturally form. Recent investigations at the site of Maax Na in northern Belize suggest that small caves, despite their diminutive size, still functioned to establish legitimacy and uphold power. The results serve to demonstrate the pervasive power of key ideological concepts in shaping the cultural landscape and indicate the need to take these into account in documenting landmarks at Maya sites, as even the less imposing ones may have been important to their inhabitants.

A tetradentate bisoxime and its supramolecular nickel(II) cluster: synthesis, crystal structure, and spectral properties

Salen-type bisoxime 5,5′-dimethoxy-2,2′-[(ethylenedioxy)bis(nitrilomethylidyne)]diphenol (H2L) and its trinuclear Ni(II) cluster {[(NiL)(n-BuOH)]2(μ-OAc)2Ni} · n-BuOH have been synthesized and structurally characterized. The structure of H2L adopts an L-shape conformation where the two salicylaldoxime moieties are well separated. In the trinuclear Ni(II) cluster, two acetates coordinate to three Ni(II)'s through Ni–O–C–O–Ni bridges, four μ-phenoxos from two [NiL(n-BuOH)] units also coordinate to Ni(II), and two n-butanols coordinate to two terminal Ni(II)'s forming a distorted octahedral geometry. The Ni–O–C–O–Ni and μ-phenoxo bridges play important roles in assembling Ni(II) and the ligands. H2L forms a rectangle-like large cave structure through O–H ··· N, C–H ··· O, and C–H ··· π hydrogen-bond interactions, whereas its trinuclear Ni(II) cluster exhibits a 3-D supramolecular network structure through intermolecular O–H ··· O, C–H ··· O, and C–H ··· π hydrogen-bond interactions.

A linear ordering of a multi-parameter universe is usually nonsense

We are talking about the most beautiful woman in the world, about the largest cave in Europe, about the best sportsman of a particular year. We have even started to rank companies according to their “intellectual assets”, universities according to their “importance”, and scientists according to their “impact”. It is time that we protest against this culture of “linearity” in a world that is multi-faceted, where many things cannot be described by one parameter, but only (if at all) by a very long vector of parameters.In this paper, I investigate this phenomenon to some extent as it applies to (computer) scientists and also indicate a link to the information avalanche we are confronted with.

The Equivalent Numerical Simulation of Fractured-Vuggy Carbonate Reservoir

The storage spaces of carbonate reservoir are complicated, matrix pores, vugs, fractures and large caves are coexistence. Traditional numerical simulation methods have harsh requirement for geology model and computing method, these methods are not suitable for carbonate reservoir. A comparatively perfect equivalent permeability and porosity model for multi-media reservoir was developed based on the theory of equivalent continuum media and the law of equivalent seepage resistance. The equivalent parameters of a practical reservoir were calculated by this model, and a numerical simulation was carried out by using these parameters, the results showed that the equivalent numerical simulation of fractured-vuggy carbonate reservoir was reasonable.

Gas Control Technology for Fully Mechanized Face of Outburst Coal Seam with Hard Roof during Initial Caving

In the fully mechanized working face, with working face forward, gob area become bigger and bigger, when the top area reach a certain span ,roof in gob suddenly cave, outspreading a large quantity of mine gas, easy to cause the gas overrun and gas accidents. In addition, shock pressure which is caused when large area roof cave, easily causing casualties and damage of equipment. This paper introduces Pan three Coal mine 17171(1) ore advance of fully mechanized working face presplit blasting, rotating stoping and comprehensive extraction technologies, which successfully solve the roof management and the gas problems during initial release, achieving good security benefits.

Speleogenesis in highly geodynamic contexts: The quaternary evolution of Monte Corchia multi-level karst system (Alpi Apuane, Italy)

The Mt. Corchia karst system is one of the most important and famous caves in the World. Different from many other large caves, here the geological structure has had only a minor role on the vertical, multi-level pattern of the cave. A detailed geomorphic and morphometric analysis of the cave and a preliminary study of cave sediments, along with new datings of speleothems, allow us now to depict the multistage evolution of this cave, which produced at least three major paleo-phreatic levels related to different base-level stages. The analysis of the directions of cave passages shows that the three main phases have different orientations, which can be attributed to the different surface morphology during speleogenesis in former times.Chronological constraints and geomorphic features suggest that the upper part of Mt. Corchia Cave developed during the end of Pliocene in a stage of favourable climatic conditions and with a moderate tectonic uplift-rate. The morphological features and the nature of sediments in the upper paleo-phreatic level at 1350–1450m above present sea level (apsl) imply the occurrence of a wide allogenic catchment area. This drainage pattern persisted also in the following stage, during a significant but slow lowering of the base level, which allowed the formation and the intense vadose rearrangement of the epi-phreatic network around 1100–1250m apsl. An uplift stage in the Early Pleistocene caused the capture of the basins and the loss of allogenic feeding. A third epi-phreatic level was formed at around 900m (apsl) when the catchment area was reduced to the present extent of carbonate rock, more than 1Ma ago. The recent evolution is due to rapid uplift and to the progressive incision of surrounding basins, which led to the lowering of the local base level and to a readjustment of the cave system in order to adapt to a new equilibrium with the present elevation of the springs.

The Role of Small Caves as Bat Hibernacula in Iowa

Small caves provide habitat for a variety of species, including bats. Past research on cave bats in Iowa has focused on a few large caves. Large caves are uncommon and represent only a portion of the known caves in the state. Since few hibernacula are protected in Iowa and no assessment of small caves has been done, bat census data were compared to cave morphology to determine the significance of small caves as hibernacula. Twelve years of census data (1998–2009) were reviewed for small caves (# 50.0 m in length) where hibernating bats had been documented. Four morphological features were compared against the data: entrance aspect, entrance size, cave length, and internal surface area. Student’s t-test and Spearman rank correlation were used to test for relationships between the presence and abundance of each species and each of the four morphological features. The eastern pipistrelle occurred in 68% of the caves, and the little brown bat in 24%. Student’s t-test showed a significant correlation with cave length for eastern pipistrelles. Spearman rank correlation showed a significant negative correlation with entrance aspect and significant positive correlations for cave length and internal surface area for eastern pipistrelles. The results are different from previous studies on larger Iowa caves, which showed big brown bats and little brown bats as the most abundant species. Eastern pipistrelles preferred larger caves with vertical entrances. However, large is a subjective term, and the results indicate that small caves are an important source of hibernacula for the eastern pipistrelle.

Determining Geophysical Properties of a Near-Surface Cave through Integrated Microgravity Vertical Gradient and Electrical Resistivity Tomography Measurements

Vertical-gradient microgravity and electrical-resistivity tomography geophysical surveys were performed over a shallow cave in the Italian Armetta Mountain karst area, close to the Liguria-Piedmont watershed. The aim of this study was to test the geophysical response of a known shallow cave. The shallowest portion of the cave exhibits narrow passages and, at about 30 meters below the entrance, a fossil meander linking two large chambers, the target of the geophysical survey. The integrated results of the two surveys show a clear geophysical response to the cave. The surveys exhibited high resistivity values and a negative gravity anomaly over the large cave passages. This work confirms the ability of these geophysical techniques to give the precise location of the voids, even in complex environments. The application of these techniques can be successful for site surveying where the presence of hollows may be expected.

Recent developments on morphometric analysis of karst caves

Nowadays, the use of computers and the digital techniques for survey processing easily allows to carry out morphometric analysis of caves and karst systems. Morphometric indices have been proposed by many authors in order to describe the genetic features of some particular types of caves, suchas coastal ones, maze caves or isolated voids. Large cave systems can be analyzed throughthe reconstruction of a 3D model. The digital model can be used to evaluate the role of the structural setting or the evolution stages throughthe recognizing of particular levels where epi-phreatic passages are more developed. These levels are particularly significant when a lithological or structural control can be excluded. Some morphometric indices, obtained by the ratios of simple dimension parameters of caves, allow the statistical analysis of large databases, collected in the regional speleological inventories, in the attempt to recognize different geomorphic populations of caves. Further studies and a greater number of analysis could allow to use these morphometric indices to distinguishgenetic categories of caves and to get a useful instrument for the study of the evolution of karst areas.

Experimental Bond Behavior of Mortar Grouted GFRP Rock Bolt

Bolts are widely used in slope engineering, tunnel and large cave supporting structures, as well as restoration of engineering structures. They can improve the strength and stability of ground, rock mass, and other structures. The traditional steel bolt has some disadvantages, such as easy corrosion, heavy weight, and difficult operation. Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) is more resistant to chloride, stronger and lighter than steel. Those advantages make it a better alternative in some fields of engineering. To utilize GFRP bars as rock bolt, some aspects of its behavior, such as bond strength in mortar, bearing capacity, and bond stress distributing along its interface, have to be examined. This paper presents a research on bond behavior of GFRP rock bolts. A concrete block is used to represent rock mass in laboratory. Modified pull out tests were conducted on selected GFRP bars and compared with steel ones that were grouted with mortar in concrete blocks. Bond characteristics of mortar grouted GFRP rock bolts with diameter 16mm were mainly evaluated and other specs of bolts were also discussed.

Craniometrical variability in the cave bears (Carnivora, Ursidae): Multivariate comparative analysis

Morphological and molecular data suggest the existence of several taxa of cave bears, which were found to belong to three major mitochondrial haplogroups: kudarensis ( kudarensis), spelaeus ( ladinicus, eremus, spelaeus), and ingressus ( uralensis, ingressus, kanivetz). An analysis of craniometrical variability was carried out based on 20 measurements of 279 skulls from 40 European, Ural, and Caucasian localities, in order to investigate morphological similarity/dissimilarity of these taxa in a multivariate approach. The craniometrical analysis divides cave bears into two groups: small cave bears and large cave bears. The group of small bears consists of rossicus/ uralensis and ladinicus. In some skull proportions, these taxa display intermediate position between brown and cave bears, i.e. presumably possessing archaic characters of their common ancestor. The group of large bears includes taxa with more specialized skulls. An early radiation within this group is demonstrated by kudarensis which probably ranged across Asia, and deningeri which occupied Europe east to the Ural Mountains. In its craniometrical characters, kanivetz from the Late Pleistocene of the Urals resembles deningeri. Other taxa of large cave bears ( spelaeus, ingressus and eremus) reveal further evolution of cranial characters, being similar in the skull proportions. The level of difference between spelaeus and ingressus does not exceed that between subspecies of the recent brown bear, such as Ursus arctos beringianus and U. a. piscator. The examined isolated population of large cave bears from Volga River region (Zhiguli Hills) is similar to ingressus. Thus, based on the craniometrical data, the following species of cave bear are recognized: Ursus kudarensis (with the subspecies U. k. praekudarensis and U. k. kudarensis), U. deningeri (several subspecies), U. rossicus (with subspecies U. r. rossicus and U. r. uralensis), U. ladinicus, U. spelaeus (with subspecies U. s. spelaeus, U. s. eremus, U. s. ingressus, and, provisionally, U. s. kanivetz,).