Large Thermal Mass Research Articles

Jet on demand—A pneumatically driven molten metal jetting method for printing crack-free aluminum components

Additive manufacturing (AM) of many traditional aluminum alloys is difficult due to hot cracking during cooling, which motivates investigating alternative AM methods that can mitigate this challenge. Here we demonstrate a new pneumatically driven molten metal jetting (MMJ) AM technique which uses a longer pressure pulse width to produce a jet of liquid metal that reaches the heated build plate. The “jet on demand” technique is utilized to build Al-6061 parts on heated build plates. Due to the large thermal mass contained in each jet, excellent adhesion is observed between droplets and layers while still maintaining dimensional control to produce parts with high relative densities (>98%). While as-printed parts exhibit different microstructure and hardness than traditional Al-6061, both microstructure and hardness are restored to traditionally processed values through a traditional T6 heat treatment. Microhardness values of 104 HV were obtained for printed Al-6061, which compares well to wrought properties. We observe that high build plate temperatures allow for lower solidification rates and eliminate hot cracking. These results point to a method for additively manufacturing traditional aluminum or other alloys that cannot currently be additively manufactured due to hot cracking.

High energy density entrainment-based catalytic micro-combustor for portable devices

The increasing demand for low-cost, high energy density heat sources has motivated the development of compact and lightweight combustion-based devices. In this work, we developed an energy-dense (≈236 MW/m3) entrainment-based catalytic micro-combustor for heating portable systems. The multichannel micro-combustor (coated with Pt/Al2O3 catalyst) leverages a copper-nichrome wire to enable quick and localized ohmic preheating durations (2–3 mins). Furthermore, we demonstrated low ignition temperature (108–125 °C), which facilitates low energy consumption (∼1948 J). In addition, an optimal fuel flow rate (3.09 × 10-8 m3/s) was determined via FEM simulations and experiments to enable fuel savings (high fuel conversion) while achieving high heat fluxes by analyzing the reaction kinetics and species transport behavior in the microchannels. Through independent testing, we established the micro-combustor’s ability to maintain long-term autothermal combustion at a high saturation wall temperature (585 °C), which was attained at short timescales to enable fast heating/cooling cyclability. The successful cyclic heating demonstration of large thermal mass additions (at least 41 times the micro-combustor’s mass), coupled with the combustor’s high energy density, shows promise for device-level implementation for a range of commercial, defense, and energy conversion applications.

Programmable Nucleation and Growth of Ultrathin Tellurium Nanowires via a Pulsed Physical Vapor Deposition Design

AbstractPhysical vapor deposition (PVD) methods have been widely employed for high‐quality crystal growth and thin‐film deposition in semiconductor electronics. However, the fabrication of emerging low dimensional nanostructures is hitherto challenging in conventional PVD systems due to their large thermal mass and near‐continuous operation which hinder flexible control of the nucleation and growth events. Herein, a pulsed PVD method is reported that features finely controllable temperature and heating time (down to milliseconds), which enables programming of the vapor supersaturation and decoupling of nucleation and growth events. Take tellurium as an example, the pulsed PVD allows transient source vaporization (≈1000 °C, 30 ms) for burst nucleation, followed by relatively low‐temperature volatilization (≈600 °C, 5 min) for steady‐state growth with well‐suppressed random nucleation. As a result, uniform and high‐density tellurium nanowires are obtained at the ultrathin thickness of sub‐10 nm and length >10 µm, which is in sharp contrast to the randomly formed nanostructures in conventional PVD. When used in the field‐effect transistor, the thin tellurium nanowires display a high on‐off ratio of >104 and hole mobility of ≈40 cm2 V−1 s−1, showing the potential for high‐performance electronics. Pulsed PVD therefore enables to flexibly program and finely tailor the nucleation and growth events during vapor phase deposition, which are otherwise impossible in conventional PVD.

External envelope impact on thermal environment of heritage buildings from the colonial period in hot arid area

The present research aims to study the effectiveness of the envelope components of colonial dwellings in maintaining a comfortable indoor thermal environment. In hot and dry areas, extreme outdoor air temperatures compel designers to provide a better indoor thermal condition which remains a rather delicate task to achieve such as in the case of the city of Biskra. The heritage buildings were constructed in the colonial period in the Biskra region; the colonial district buildings are built with local materials such as mud bricks and stones that have a large thermal mass; these materials are the main component of the walls of the outer exterior skin. Onsite measurement campaigns were carried out to record air temperatures inside the inhabited area for 24 hours. Thereafter, the collected data were compared with the outdoor air temperatures to assess the effect of the envelope impact on the temperature variation. The important results remain in the envelope’s crucial effect to achieve thermal comfort using local materials with a high thermal mass.

Influence of load, sliding speed and heat-sink volume on the tribological behaviour of polyoxymethylene (POM) sliding against steel

This work focuses on a tribological and contact-temperature investigation of unreinforced polyoxymethylene (POM) sliding against steel (DIN 100Cr6) under a wide range of loads and sliding speeds. We have investigated a wider range than is commonly studied, along with different heat-sink volumes of the steel counter-body (3-fold variation). Four empirical contact-load criteria, i.e., wear-change factor, mechanical load factor, thermal load factor, and critical temperature factor, were introduced to complement the evaluation of the tribological behaviour and the contact temperature. Moreover, these factors are not limited to current materials, but provide general methodological approach. Irrespective of the heat-sink volume, even with an 8-fold increase in the p·v value (0.6–4.8 MPa.m/s), the wear mechanism does not change significantly. This beneficial behaviour is mainly due to the synergistic interplay of the mechanical and thermal loads, which mutually suppress the domination and critical state of a single wear mechanism, either mechanical-based or thermal-based, which was understood through novel empirical factor analyses. Another key parameter for maintaining stable and beneficial tribological performance was the large thermal mass, i.e., the heat-sink volume of all the steel samples that suppressed the commonly observed high-temperature rise under severe contact conditions. Thus, the tribological performance was notably enhanced compared to previous studies under similar conditions, since the heat-sink volume was large enough and the balance between the thermal and mechanical loads was maintained.

Development of a device for characterizing radiative cooling performance

Daytime radiative cooling has recently drawn much attention due to its potential for use in next-generation cooling systems. So far, two indicators have been used to estimate radiative cooling performance: (i) cooling temperature of a radiative cooling surface at equilibrium condition; and (ii) instantaneous cooling power from a radiative cooling surface at ambient temperature. These quantities, however, deal with only a small thermal mass of a sample itself (i.e., they do not consider a real-world system to which a radiative cooling surface is applied) and cannot directly indicate the energy saving caused by the radiative cooling effect. Here, we propose a device that can directly measure daily averaged radiative cooling power as well as the resulting cooling energy reduction. To this end, two enclosures with different top covers (i.e., one with commercially available white paint and the other with radiative cooling paint) are prepared with several thermoelectric coolers attached through the side walls. Two different outdoor experiments are carried out; that is, one maintaining constant enclosure temperature and the other maintaining constant temperature difference between enclosure and ambient. The first test is designed for verifying the cooling energy saving of building, and the second test is for quantifying the cooling density from radiative cooling in an enclosure with a large thermal mass. By measuring the temperature and power consumption in the enclosures, the radiative cooling performance of two different enclosures can be thoroughly and quantitatively analyzed, which potentially can lead to the direct examination of cooling energy saving of buildings exploiting the daytime radiative cooling effects. With the proposed device, we show that the radiative cooling paint can produce the daily averaged radiative cooling of 10.9 ∼ 45.2 W/m 2 and the corresponding cooling load of thermoelectric coolers can be reduced by 15.7 ∼ 50.0%. We anticipate this device to be a starting point for more realistic and sophisticated evaluation of radiative cooling performance. • A device that directly measures the radiative cooling power reduction is proposed. • Two kinds of performance tests (const T and const Δ T ) can be performed. • This device is well suited to more realistic evaluation of radiative cooling performance.

Energy and mass exchange at an urban site in mountainous terrain – the Alpine city of Innsbruck

Abstract. This study represents the first detailed analysis of multi-year, near-surface turbulence observations for an urban area located in highly complex terrain. Using 4 years of eddy covariance measurements over the Alpine city of Innsbruck, Austria, the effects of the urban surface, orographic setting and mountain weather on energy and mass exchange are investigated. In terms of surface controls, the findings for Innsbruck are in accordance with previous studies at city centre sites. The available energy is partitioned mainly into net storage heat flux and sensible heat flux (each comprising about 40 % of the net radiation, Q*, during the daytime in summer). The latent heat flux is small by comparison (only about 10 % of Q*) due to the small amount of vegetation present but increases for short periods (6–12 h) following rainfall. Additional energy supplied by anthropogenic activities and heat released from the large thermal mass of the urban surface helps to support positive sensible heat fluxes in the city all year round. Annual observed CO2 fluxes (5.1 kg C m−2 yr−1) correspond well to modelled emissions and expectations based on findings at other sites with a similar proportion of vegetation. The net CO2 exchange is dominated by anthropogenic emissions from traffic in summer and building heating in winter. In contrast to previous urban observational studies, the effect of the orography is examined here. Innsbruck's location in a steep-sided valley results in marked diurnal and seasonal patterns in flow conditions. A typical valley wind circulation is observed (in the absence of strong synoptic forcing) with moderate up-valley winds during daytime, weaker down-valley winds at night (and in winter) and near-zero wind speeds around the times of the twice-daily wind reversal. Due to Innsbruck's location north of the main Alpine crest, southerly foehn events frequently have a marked effect on temperature, wind speed, turbulence and pollutant concentration. Warm, dry foehn air advected over the surface can lead to negative sensible heat fluxes both inside and outside the city. Increased wind speeds and intense mixing during foehn (turbulent kinetic energy often exceeds 5 m2 s−2) help to ventilate the city, illustrated here by low CO2 mixing ratios. Radiative exchange is also affected by the orography – incoming shortwave radiation is blocked by the terrain at low solar elevation. The interpretation of the dataset is complicated by distinct temporal patterns in flow conditions and the combined influences of the urban environment, terrain and atmospheric conditions. The analysis presented here reveals how Innsbruck's mountainous setting impacts the near-surface conditions in multiple ways, highlighting the similarities with previous studies in much flatter terrain and examining the differences in order to begin to understand interactions between urban and orographic processes.

Sky Radiation Decreases Thermal Mass Requirements to Achieve 100% Ambient Cooling in Hot US Climates

Abstract Ambient House is a building that maintains indoor temperature within a comfortable range by controlling gains and losses from ambient sources and utilizing thermal mass to moderate temperature changes when the sources are unavailable. Previously, necessary building characteristics were determined for passive solar as the heating source and ventilation as the cooling source in 11 US climate zones. (Sharp, M.K., 2012, “Indoor Comfort Achieved Exclusively from Ambient Sources Across US Climates,” ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng. 143, (6), p. 061005.) It was noted that in hot climates, such as Phoenix, AZ, there are long periods during which outdoor temperature is too warm for cooling, necessitating large thermal mass to avoid indoor overheating. In this article, thermal mass requirements are compared between sky radiation and nighttime ventilation cooling in all 16 US climate zones, including marine subzones 3C and 4C and very cold and subarctic zones 7 and 8. It is shown that sky radiation provides shorter intervals of cooling unavailability and allows much smaller thermal mass to achieve year-round indoor comfort in the hot climates of Las Vegas, Miami, New Orleans, and Phoenix, while it provides no significant benefits in cool climates, where thermal mass is dictated more by the need to slow the decrease in indoor temperature during cloudy periods in the winter. In Fairbanks, AK (zone 8), in particular, the lack of significant solar gains for almost 3 months during the winter requires large thermal mass to maintain indoor comfort. Minimal thermal mass is needed to meet the small summer cooling demand, and both sky and ventilation cooling are sufficient.

Optical Hydrogen Nanothermometry of Plasmonic Nanoparticles under Illumination.

The temperature of nanoparticles is a critical parameter in applications that range from biology, to sensors, to photocatalysis. Yet, accurately determining the absolute temperature of nanoparticles is intrinsically difficult because traditional temperature probes likely deliver inaccurate results due to their large thermal mass compared to the nanoparticles. Here we present a hydrogen nanothermometry method that enables a noninvasive and direct measurement of absolute Pd nanoparticle temperature via the temperature dependence of the first-order phase transformation during Pd hydride formation. We apply it to accurately measure light-absorption-induced Pd nanoparticle heating at different irradiated powers with 1 °C resolution and to unravel the impact of nanoparticle density in an array on the obtained temperature. In a wider perspective, this work reports a noninvasive method for accurate temperature measurements at the nanoscale, which we predict will find application in, for example, nano-optics, nanolithography, and plasmon-mediated catalysis to distinguish thermal from electronic effects.

Thermal Storage Performance of Underground Cave Dwellings under Kang Intermittent Heating: A Case Study of Northern China

The intermittent heating mode of Kang plays an important role in the heat storage and release in cave dwellings. However, research on the effect of Kang heating on the thermal process of traditional buildings is rare. Therefore, based on long-term monitoring of cave dwellings, regular conclusions about the influence of Kang heating on the thermal environment were obtained. Furthermore, an unsteady heat transfer model of the envelope was proposed for the first time. Then, based on this model, the thermal storage performance of cave dwellings during the period of Kang intermittent heating was explored. The results showed that, due to Kang heating, the indoor air temperature of cave dwellings could be increased by an average of 3.1 °C. Furthermore, the inner walls had a large thermal mass and the maximum heat storage in a single day was 487.75 kJ/m2, while the maximum heat release was 419.02 kJ/m2. The heat release at night could reach 87%. In this paper, the law of thermal storage and release characteristics of earthen building envelopes under intermittent heating was firstly obtained. Results can enrich the thermal process theory of earthen buildings and provide a theoretical basis and technical support for building thermal environmental construction.

Two novel resistance-capacitance network models to predict the dynamic thermal behavior of active pipe-embedded structures in buildings

Active pipe-embedded structures (APES) are promising low-energy systems for reducing cooling and heating loads in buildings. These structures are usually multilayered, having a main concrete layer where pipes are located. Simplified heat transfer models of these systems are often required for building energy performance simulations. The majority of the simplified models available in the literature show limitations to capture accurately the dynamic thermal behavior of these systems, especially when they have large thermal mass. The goal of the present effort is to introduce two new Resistance-Capacitance (RC) network models, the Delta and the Umbrella, for the main concrete layer of a prototypical APES system. The parameters of the models are obtained through a genetic algorithm, which is dynamically coupled with the models. This algorithm minimizes the error between the RC networks and a baseline dataset that was generated through a frequency-domain finite-difference (FDFD) model of an APES system. To assess the performance of the proposed models, they are compared with two others from the literature for three different thicknesses of the main layer. The results show that the Delta RC network has, in general, similar performance to the literature models. The overall nRMSE (normalized root mean square error) values for these models is between 6% and 10%. They are able to predict accurately the thermal response of the system to some of the boundary conditions analyzed, but show limitations for massive concrete layers under high frequency thermal fluctuations. The Umbrella RC network, on the other hand, was shown to have remarkable accuracy at higher frequencies than the other models, even for the massive structures. The overall nRMSE value for this model was of 3%.

4-fold enhancement in energy scavenging from fluctuating thermal resources using a temperature-doubler circuit

<h2>Summary</h2> Oscillating thermal resources are ubiquitous thanks to the diurnal cycle and are also found in nonsolar settings. Yet in isolation, oscillating thermal resources cannot normally generate electricity because standard heat engines require two thermal terminals, a source and a sink, and hence the engine's second terminal is typically connected to some nearby constant-temperature reservoir. As an alternative, here we introduce the "temperature doubler" thermal circuit, based on two thermal diodes and two thermal capacitances. Modeling reveals how the electrical power output depends on the thermal diodes and masses. Benchtop experiments match the modeling well with no free parameters. Experiments further show that the temperature doubler generates four times more electricity than a conventional approach using a static heat sink, with a theoretical limit of an 8-fold enhancement for perfect thermal diodes and large thermal masses. This study shows how high-performance nonlinear thermal elements enable new approaches to more effective thermal-to-electrical energy conversion.

Indoor Comfort Achieved Exclusively From Ambient Sources Across US Climates

Abstract This study tests the feasibility of a more climate-friendly approach to space conditioning. This new strategy (called Ambient House) employs thermal mass in conjunction with ambient sources of heat and cold to maintain indoor temperature within a comfortable range with no auxiliary energy. Buildings in 11 US climate zones were simulated as first-order systems with envelope losses, internal heat gains, solar gains, and heat rejection by natural ventilation. Building similitude parameters were adjusted to maintain indoor temperature within a range of 20–25 °C. Building performance is defined by two mathematical parameters. First, the asymptotic temperature difference, which is a ratio of solar and internal heat gains to envelope losses and ventilation cooling, also incorporates control functions for solar heating and ventilation cooling. Second, the building time constant is the ratio of thermal capacitance to envelope losses and ventilation cooling. Temperature response was compared with that of buildings with the same characteristics, except low thermal mass. Without auxiliary heating and cooling and without active controls, low mass buildings reached temperatures as low as −3 °C and over 70 °C. With controls, extreme temperatures were still −3 to 40 °C. The Ambient House comfort temperature range was achievable with thermal mass within or near that of conventional construction in all but the hot climates of Miami, New Orleans and Phoenix. In these locations, large thermal mass and high ventilation cooling were required. This study confirms that it is feasible to thermally condition spaces exclusively with ambient sources in all the US climate zones.

Fast floating temperature sensor measures SST, not wet bulb temperature

AbstractA small integrated oceanographic thermometer with a nominal response time of 1 s was affixed to a floating hose “sea snake” towed near the bow of a research vessel. The sensor measured the near-surface ocean temperature accurately and in agreement with other platforms. The effect of conduction and evaporation is modeled for a sensor impulsively alternated between water and air. Large thermal mass makes most sea snake thermometers insensitive to temperature impulses. The smaller 1-s thermometer cooled by evaporation, but the sensor never reached the wet bulb temperature. The cooling was less than 6% of the (~2.7 °C) difference between the ocean temperature and the wet bulb temperature in 99% of 2 s–1 samples. Filtering outliers, such as with a median, effectively removes the evaporative cooling effect from 1- or 10-minute average temperatures.

Effects of Wire Diameter and Filament Size on the Processing Window of Bi-2212 Round Wire

High engineering critical current density (JE of 1300 A/mm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> at 4.2 K and 15 T) in Bi-2212 round wire has been achieved through a partial melt, overpressure heat treatment process. JE varies strongly with processing conditions, particularly the maximum heat treatment temperature (Tmax). Increasing Tmax results in longer time in the melt (defined as the time between when Bi-2212 melts on heating and when Bi-2212 begins to form on cooling), more bridging between the filaments, lower JE, and higher ac losses. A wide processing window with a large range of Tmax that has a nearly constant JE is desired for processing large coils with large thermal mass and significant thermal time constants that may make precise control over the desired temperature - time profiles uncertain. Accordingly, we wanted to explore broadening the Tmax window by controlling the Bi-2212 powder melting or wire architecture design. Here we report on studies of the performance variation with Tmax for two production wires with a filling factor of about 20% and 85 × 18 filaments where filament size was varied by changing the wire diameter, a process which also shortens the distance between filaments. We found that wires with smaller filament diameter (9 to 11 μm) showed a peak JE at the low end of Tmax and also a JE that was more sensitive to Tmax. A JE - Tmax plot showed a plateau JE(4.2 K, 5 T) of ~1100 A/mm <sup xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">2</sup> between Tmax of 886 and 894 °C for 1.0 and 1.2 mm wires, where JE is less sensitive to the wire diameter and Tmax. This JE plateau range is a preferred processing window for achieving high JE in coils.

Bright, continuous beams of cold free radicals

We demonstrate a cryogenic buffer gas-cooled molecular beam source capable of producing bright, continuous beams of cold and slow free radicals via laser ablation over durations of up to 60~seconds. The source design uses a closed liquid helium reservoir as a large thermal mass to minimize heating and ensure reproducible beam properties during operation. Under typical conditions, the source produces beams of our test species SrF, containing $5\times10^{12}~$molecules per steradian per second in the $X^{2}\Sigma(v=0, N=1)$ state with a rotational temperature of $1.0(2)~$K and a forward velocity of $140~$m/s. The beam properties are robust and unchanged for multiple cell geometries but depend critically on the helium buffer gas flow rate, which must be $\geq10~$ standard cubic centimeters per minute to produce bright, continuous beams of molecules for an ablation repetition rate of $55~$Hz.

Manipulation of thick‐walled PEEK bushing crystallinity and modulus via instrumented compression molding

AbstractAn instrumented hot compression molding apparatus was fabricated to allow real‐time monitoring and precise temperature control during the compaction and consolidation of large polyether ether ketone (PEEK) products. The objective was to determine the impact of controlled variables on the properties of the molded article. Four different strategies were designed to control the mold thermal profiles. The average crystallinity in a commercial molding process is restricted due to large thermal masses with low thermal conductivity. In contrast, this research was able to reduce the crystallinity range from 33% to 6% by developing a special controlled apparatus and implementing new processing methodologies. In this study, PEEK showed a significant increase in the modulus compared to typical values measured on commercially produced analogs, and a higher degree of property uniformity. In a single commercially molded PEEK billet, compressive modulus variability was 13% at room temperature, and 21% at 225°C. Properties of billets produced using the laboratory apparatus showed a reduction in variability to 2%.

Lithium Battery Cell Level Fusing with Aluminum Heavy Wire Bonds

Abstract Aluminum heavy wire bonds interconnects are a potential alternative to laser or resistance welded bus bars due to its ease of manufacturability, long term reliability and low cost for battery banks. They can also be utilized as a fault protection solution in case of a surge current, dead short, etc, and to isolate a bad cell preventing synchronous failure. Typically, the current-carrying capability of a wire is estimated using standard data generated by testing in free air. However, a deviation in the capacity limits can occur due to the proximity of interconnect to larger thermal masses and different heat extraction techniques found in present day lithium battery packs; e.g., fluid channel cooling, encapsulated wires, etc. The cylindrical cell cathode, anode, and the busbar material constitute a large thermal mass to increase the fusing current in wire bonds above conventional levels. To better predict and design the interconnects advanced and system-specific models should be developed. This paper presents a new mathematical approach which includes the effect of convective cooling inside the battery pack to do an early step estimation of the current handling capacity and fusing time of different diameter wires. The paper also presents a finite element model that includes the impact of boundary conditions, wire length and wire diameter on steady-state current handling capacity of 99.99 % Al wire. Both steady-state and transient simulations were performed to estimate fusing times at different time rated conditions. The paper concludes by providing new curve-fit patterns to give future battery pack designers further insight aiding new designs.

Effect of different thermocouple constructions on heat-level vapour phase soldering profiles

PurposeTo improve productivity and reach better quality in assembling, measurements and proper process controlling are a necessary factor. This study aims to focus on the monitoring heat-level-based vapour phase reflow soldering (VPS), where – as it was found – different thermocouple constructions can affect the set parameters of the oven and resulting soldering profiles significantly.Design/methodology/approachThe study experiments showed significant alteration of the heating profiles during the process of the reflowing using different construction of k-type thermocouples. In a heat-level-based VPS oven, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) gas and water-resistant, fibreglass, thin PFA and ultrathin PFA-covered thermocouples were tested with ±1 °C precision. The oven parameters were swept according to the heating power; the length of the introduced thermocouple cables was also taken into account. An FR4-based sample PCB was used for monitoring the temperature.FindingsAccording to the results, due to the mass and volume of the thermocouples’ wires, different transients were observed on the resulting soldering profiles on the same sample PCB. The thermocouples with lower thermal mass result in faster profiles and significantly different heating factor values compared to the thermocouples that have larger thermal mass. Consequently, the length of the thermocouple wires put in the oven has also considerable effect on the heat transfer of the PCB inside the oven as well.Originality/valueThe paper shows that the thermocouple construction must be taken into account when setting up a required soldering profile, while the thermal mass of the wires might cause a significant difference in the prediction of the actual and expected soldering temperatures.

Forbidden frozen-in dark matter

We examine and point out the importance of a regime of dark matter pro- duction through the freeze-in mechanism that results from a large thermal correction to a decaying mediator particle mass from hot plasma in the early Universe. We show that mediator decays to dark matter that are kinematically forbidden at the usually considered ranges of low temperatures can be generically present at higher temperatures and actually dominate the overall dark matter production, thus leading to very distinct solutions from the standard case. We illustrate these features by considering a dark Higgs portal model where dark matter is produced via decays of a scalar field with a large thermal mass. We identify the resulting ranges of parameters that are consistent with the correct dark matter relic abundance and further apply current and expected future collider, cosmological, and astrophysical limits.