Large Social Groups Research Articles

Age differences in the responses of vervet monkeys, Chlorocebus pygerythrus, to terrestrial alarm calls

The high costs of predation and the opportunity costs associated with predator avoidance are likely to select for flexibility in the development of antipredator responses based on local socioecological conditions. As group size is hypothesized to vary across populations as a function of predation risk, the development of antipredator behaviours throughout ontogeny may be influenced by the size of an individual's social group. Here, we explore the development of alarm call responses in wild vervet monkeys living at the Samara Game Reserve, South Africa. Vervet monkeys at this site live in relatively large social groups, and adult responses to alarms have previously shown less uniformity than in other sites where group sizes are smaller. We presented monkeys playback recordings of terrestrial alarm calls produced by individuals of different age–sex classes. We then videorecorded and scored the responses of receivers along an ordinal maturity scale. We used a mixed-effects ordinal logistic regression model within a Bayesian framework to explore how response intensity is affected by the age–sex of the caller, and the age of receivers. Our analysis showed that younger monkeys (<2 years old) exhibit strong evasive responses to call stimuli, regardless of the age–sex class of the caller. The intensity of these responses decreases with age, with responses to nonalarm calls decreasing earlier in development than responses to alarm calls. Adult responses to alarm calls in this population are as likely to be characterized by a general increase in vigilance as they are to consist of an evasive response. We suggest that responses in younger individuals at Samara are mediated by generalized startle responses to loud, plosive noises. Development of more specific responses throughout ontogeny is likely to be dependent on learning from adult models, whose milder responses reflect local socioecological conditions specific to Samara.

115 Effect of an enriched social environment on social maturation of horses

Conventional husbandry practices rarely allow for sociality of horses. Under natural conditions, horses learn the social codes of their group mates during the first years of life. Horses raised in box stalls have more aggressive interactions with humans than horses housed in a group setting in a pasture. Such conditions can potentially compromise the well-being of the horses. The study aimed at providing Information on the temporal evolution of the young horse's behavior in a social group to estimate better the exact age of social maturity. The study was run in a breeding stud for sport horses born and raised in large social all-age groups (20–60 horses), always outdoors on large pastures and fed roughage only. Salt lick was available. From the age of 4 years, the behavior of 9 horses was observed daily during daytime (6 h between 8:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m.) between June and August each year for 3 consecutive years. Each horse was observed for a total of at least 90 h and its social interactions (defensive, offensive, or affiliative) were recorded. The data was analyzed with a GLMM. The type of interaction was considered a fixed factor in interaction with age and season. The identity of horses was considered a random factor. We found that 4yrs-old horses had fewer defensive interactions than 5- and 6yrs-old horses (4yrs-5yrs P < 0.0001, 4yrs-6yrs P < 0.001). The affiliative and offensive interactions decreased continuously fromthe age of 4 to 6 yrs with 5yrs old showing in between levels (Affiliative: 4yrs-5yrs P < 0.0001, 5yrs-6yrs P < 0.001, 4yrs-6yrs P < 0.001; Offensive: 5yrs-6yrs P = 0.009, 4yrs-5yrs P < 0.001, 4yrs-6yrs P < 0.001). While getting older, horses expressed less offensive agonistic behavior and more defensive behavior suggesting a phenomenon of social maturation from the age of 4 to 6 years. This might be the consequence of a better ability to establish and respect the group's dominance hierarchy. It is also possible that more mature horses stay closer to same-rank individuals, unlike younger ones, decreasing then the risk of offensive interactions. The fact that the decrease in affiliative interactions was associated with a decrease in offensive interactions go along with the hypothesis of a social maturation and the development of better socio-cognitive skills. This development of social behavior questions the fact that many horses are traditionally isolated from congeners when they start working, from the age of 2, latest 3 years old. Our results suggest that such horses are excluded from a social group during a sensitive period of social maturation. This could induce a lack of social skills that could be necessary later for interacting normal with congeners and humans.

THE «HOUSEHOLD OF CERAMIST 2» COMPLEX ON THE TRIPOLIAN GIANT-SETTLEMENT TALIANKI

The Tripolian archaeological expedition of the Institute of Archaeology of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine during 2018—2019, 2021—2022 explored a separate planographic unit of the settlement-giant Talianki which was named «Household of ceramist 2». The complex consists of five ground dwellings, one pottery kiln (G) and a place from a possible kiln, two large objects («pit-paddocks») and other objects of various purposes (small depressions, workplaces).&#x0D; Dwellings 54—56 consisted of two parts — a smaller entrance and a large residential one. The interior of the residential part is standard; the entrance framed with decor. Building 53 is characterized by its larger dimensions with an additional third room. The southernmost building 57 was much smaller, interior details almost not survived. At the lower floor of the building floor greases or pavements (buildings 53, 57), and depressions are found.&#x0D; The kiln «G» was located outside the residential area of the settlement near the northwestern part of pit 3. The kiln shape is close to rectangular with rounded corners. Kiln is two-chamber with vertically connected joints. The combustion chamber is separated from the burning compartment by a grid and coupled to warm air vents. This kiln is built of stones, clay and a significant number of pottery fragments. The geomagnetic anomaly corresponding to the characteristics of the kiln was located near the western side of pit 4. No visible remains of the kiln found at this location.&#x0D; Large pits 3, 4 were located on the line of deepened&#x0D; objects, which runs parallel to the line of ground buildings already outside the residential zone of the settlement. Each of the pits consisted of two depressions. Several stages of use recorded: selection of local clay for construction («toloka» / pit-paddock), use as dugout, repeated disposal of waste (debris of furnace vaults, defective products, ash and utility waste).&#x0D; A large number of ceramic fragments, bone and stone tools, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figurines, fragments of models of houses, sledges, etc. are found inside and around the sites. The mass finding of ceramic items in pit 4 deserves special attention. These are 494 whole and fragmented clay items. In addition to the impressive amount of these items in one object, special attention is drawn to unfinished or damaged figurines, as well as prepared individual parts of future products and flattened lumps of clay. Given the large amount of this kind of «production waste», this complex may be considered as a workshop for the production of clay-plastics, and perhaps as a place of study.&#x0D; The discovered complex ought to be reconstructed as a place of residence for a large family group consisting of 4 small families, or a separate polygamous family. This social group specialized in the production of ceramic wares, serving a much larger social group.

Revitalization of the national consciousness of youth

Historical experience shows that an integral part of the transformation of the social system is the process of changing group and individual consciousness, determined by objective and subjective factors. Knowledge and understanding of trends in the development of this process involves studying the characteristics and nature of changes in the consciousness of various social groups, identifying dominant values, motives, attitudes, understanding the origins and causes of changes in consciousness, both positive and negative, correlating them with the needs of society. In this regard, our research is aimed at identifying the need to create a holistic socio-philosophical vision of the ongoing processes, which could form a theoretical and methodological basis for making managerial decisions and purposeful regulation of all spheres of human activity. In a modern country, the social structure of society has changed significantly, one social group has been replaced by others, their social status and role have changed, as well as the ratio. The consciousness of these groups has undergone and is undergoing a transformation. In the process of reforming society, intra- and intergroup dynamics are increasing, the boundaries between different groups are blurring, the mobility of individual members of society in an intergroup environment is often expressed in an insufficiently clear group position of an individual. &nbsp;The "massivization" of all spheres of public life, including spiritual life, brings to the fore mass consciousness, the signs of which are: the displacement of rational components by irrational ones, the predominance of emotions and feelings, a decrease in confidence in the future, a decrease in social activity. In these conditions, the tasks of this study become relevant and practically necessary – to analyze the origins of the above processes, identify trends in their development and concretize the scientific categories "mass" and "mass consciousness". In modern society, the state of mass consciousness is determined not only by the deterioration of objective living conditions, but also depends on the destructive informational and psychological impact exerted on it, under which people lose an objective view of events and facts, the ability to distinguish truth from lies decreases, mental anomalies develop that negatively affect people's own lives and their social role in society. The greatest manifestation of these processes is observed in young people. The formation of this group took place in conditions when there was a sharp polarization of various strata of society, not only in terms of living standards, but also in terms of views on life, such as political and ideological orientation, attitude to the goals and meaning of one's own life. Many researchers of youth problems openly admit that there have been significant deformations of youth consciousness (Anderson et all 1996). They were expressed in the "collapse of ideals", a negative attitude to the history and traditions of society, the growth of social nihilism, the desire for "independence" from society, understood as permissiveness. Therefore, today there is an urgent need to study the consciousness of youth as a large social group, as well as taking into account intra-group differentiation, which is the purpose of this study. The scientific and practical significance of this study lies in the fact that the solution of this problem will contribute to the development of scientific foundations for the modification of youth policy in the country. The research applied the methods of reviewing the existing scientific literature on consciousness and its levels, the method of scientific analysis and synthesis of factors affecting the deformation of youth consciousness in modern realities. The results of the study show that modern youth, due to the peculiarities of their age, relatively easily accepts norms, values, patterns of the new, which allows us to hope for the positive development of this social group. The conducted research revealed that the main factor influencing the consciousness of the young society is the mass media; and despite the differences in the choice of mass media, in general, the level of trust in relation to the media is quite high. The author substantiates the need to regulate the activities of the mass media, as well as to develop a program to ensure information and psychological security for both individuals and groups within the framework of a unified youth policy, in which social philosophy should play a significant role. The condition for the implementation of such a program is the implementation of the national security doctrine, which includes the protection of the security of the individual, society and the state. Keywords:&nbsp;renaissance, national consciousness, youth, deformations, philosophy

Dreaming On: Dying Behaviour and the Romantic-Individualist Ethos

Over the last two decades and, most recently because of the COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a growing interest in studying topics related to dying and death in various fields of research. Research has started to explore, in more detail, death and bereavement among nonreligious people in contemporary Western societies. It is now well established that this large social group finds its own meaningful ways to come to terms with grief, loss and finitude. However, these studies typically do not include the perspectives of those living with life-threatening illness and facing death. Drawing on one and a half years of ethnographic research conducted among patients receiving palliative care in Switzerland, this study explores how a nonreligious orientation and other facets of human existence influence emotions and meaning making while dying. This is exemplified by the case of an atheist who I picked from the totality of fieldwork encounters in order to illuminate the nuances and complexities of living with terminal illness. The study found that secular and individualist values make it difficult to find closure and accept death. At the same time, the results show that the identification with the secular features of a worldview can increase well-being by ensuring a sense of permanence in actions and meaning-making habits in dying. Furthermore, this article makes the case for studying attitudes towards dying and death in relation to time and life situation.

O cyklach integracji, dezintegracji i reintegracji w życiu politycznym

Transformations of ideological systems, institutional structures, models of political order and socio-political movements are cyclical processes of integration, disintegration, reintegration of large social groups and communities occurring due to changes in the circumstances of their functioning, reevaluation of the criteria for the validity of social demand, revision of the designators of collective identity. The recurrence of such paradoxical recurrences (although in altered conditions and forms) of what seemed to have been overcome is ruled by dialectical laws: the contradictory nature of any phenomena, self-denial or negation via alternative factors, and then negation of negation. This explains the paradoxical continuity in the variability of ideas, structures, patterns of action, symbols, political rituals.

Важнейшие элементы советской теории этноса: перспективы использования в современных теориях этничности

This paper continues the author's previous publication on the Soviet theory of ethnos, considering such elements of this theory as ethnic processes, ethnic self-consciousness, and taxonomic levels of ethnic communities. The paper draws an attention to the fact that the ideas of Russian ethnologists about the philosophical positions regarding the existence of social communities (or large social groups) are limited by the constructivism-positivism dichotomy. Moreover, most of these ethnologists adopt a constructivist position, and some of them deny the very reality of ethnic communities. At the same time, in recent decades, English-speaking philosophers and social scientists have been intensively developing critical-realist theory as an alternative to the two named approaches. The paper offers to consider the problem of ethnicity within the framework of critical realism, using the time-tested elements of the theory of ethnos, such as the abovementioned ethnic processes, self-consciousness (or ethnic identity), and the concept of taxonomic levels of ethnic communities. Simultaneously one should bear in mind that the theory of ethnos itself is not without major drawbacks. From the author's point of view, the main weaknesses in this theory are attempts to tie the typology of ethnic communities to the historical stages in the development of society, and more specifically to Marx's socio-economic formations; to tie rigidly the group characteristics of ethnos to its cultural characteristics, including language; and to remove agency from the framework of this theory, while maintaining structural (in this case, belonging to a group) and cultural components of the theory of ethnos. The use of a critical-realist approach in relation to ethnicity allows us to assert that the removal of ethnic self-identifications from the theoretical model of ethnos leads to the destruction of this model and to the perception of ethnic communities as sets of individuals who are united together by researchers for very different reasons. An ethnologist should conclude that the group is an ethnos, and not some other type of a group, if the majority of its members have a self-identification that coincides with the self-identification of their parents, even when this group consists of representatives of different social strata, has different occupations, native languages, citizenships, and confessions or live dispersed in remote areas.

Greek reflections on global neurosurgery

IntroductionLarge populations in middle- and low-income countries in Africa, Asia, and Central and South Americas face a dramatic neurosurgical crisis. However, large social groups in high-income countries face similar limited access to neurosurgical services. Proper identification of such a problem, analysis of the underlying causes, and proposal of potential solutions may not only address the problem at a national level, but may also provide valuable reflections on the efficient management of global neurosurgical crisis. Research questionTo evaluate if special social groups face similar problems in Greece. Material and methodsThe structure of the Greek health system was examined. The national census along with the registry of practicing neurosurgeons of the Greek National Society, as well as the national health map were searched. ResultsA series of socio-economic factors, language barriers, cultural and religion differences, geographical barriers, the COVID-19 pandemic aftermath, along with the inherent malfunctioning of the Greek health system have led to this national neurosurgical crisis. Discussion and conclusionAn extensive redrawing of the Greek health map, reorganization of the national health system, along with adaptation of all recent advances in telemedicine may alleviate the health burden in these populations. The results of this local reformation may be applied to a global level for managing the ongoing health crisis. Moreover, the development of a European taskforce by the European Association of Neurosurgical Societies (EANS) may well facilitate the development of realistic and efficacious global solutions, and contribute to the global effort for providing high-quality neurosurgical services worldwide.

Индикаторы поземельной конфликтности в анализе крестьянской идентичности периода аграрных трансформаций 1917–1920 гг.

The study of social behavior in history is closely related to the concepts of mentality and social identity. Being a real factor in the historical process, mentality manifests itself in the activities of large social groups, acts as a psychological justification for life strategies for survival. At the same time, mentality itself carries the character of a strategy, which does not explain the tactical – behavioral – reactions of a particular social group to crisis moments of existence, such as epidemics, wars, hunger strikes, etc. The specification of mental manifestations led to the use of the “tactical” category of social identity. Researchers emphasize the complex semantic context of this category. The author’s understanding is tied to social specifics – to peasant identity. The latter is defined as the approval of the survival strategy used in a given social group, which is practically implemented in a certain set of repetitive behavioral reactions, a behavioral pattern. The purpose of this study is to study the peasant identity of a particular region – the Chernozem region – during the period of agrarian transformations of 1917–1920. The article considers the structure of peasant identity, the behavioral reactions of the peasantry to changing economic conditions, and gives a classification of land conflicts. The article also presents the indicator possibilities of land conflicts and determines the place of peasant identity in the behavioral pattern of the black earth peasantry. The presented methodology for indicating land conflicts to determine the state of peasant identity in 1917–1920. Can be applied in the analysis of other historical periods. The study was conducted on the materials of the archives of the Lipetsk, Voronezh, Kursk, Oryol and Tambov regions.

Non-Schmittian Concept of “the Political”

This article aims to present non-Schmittian ways of defining “the political” in Polish discourse on the theory of politics. The article consists of three parts. The first one briefly describes Carl Schmitt’s understanding of “the political”. The second one discusses various ways in which non-Schmittian approaches to the concept are identified based on four features (definitions that do not refer to conflict; definitions based on agonistic visions of social rivalry; the ones that focus on individuals instead of large social groups, and those which by referring to postmodernism, define new boundaries of the political as such). The third section provides a summary.

Energy security as a research area of international security

Energy security is the basic analytical category for this conducted study and its findings that are included in the article. This category defines the scope and the specific character of research and its relation to security studies. It is an important element of the epistemic layer of the conducted research. On the other hand, in terms of social reality and ontology, energy security is a foreign policy objective, an international value, and a dynamic process. It concerns various types of actors: from individuals to large social groups, institutions, states, nations, and international systems. Therefore, energy security policy aims to protect the state and society against numerous threats, the multitude, unpredictability, and complexity of which result from the polyarchic international system. The research objective of the study is to analyse the essence and specificity of energy security in the light of research on international security. Thus, various theoretical approaches, useful in the analysis of energy security issues, were taken into account. Their usefulness was also determined in the case of the analysis of the specificity of the contemporary energy market. The analysis allows us to conclude that energy security issues take into account long-term development trends as well as unpredictable events related to the functioning of energy market and energy technology. Thus, unexpected, sudden phenomena resulting from the dynamics of the international environment gain in importance. The dilemma related to non-linear thinking often ignores a variety of solutions that, taken together, can cause a radical turn in the energy security concept and its evolution.

Impact of Personal Experience of COVID-19 Disease on Recreational Anglers' Attitudes and Behaviors.

Anglers are a large social group with access to a "relatively safe" form of recreation, that allows the opportunity to relieve stress. An important question, however, is how they did so, and to what extent their perceived COVID-19 transition status influenced decisions both in life and at the fishing site. Our study aimed to determine the dynamics of anglers' attitudes and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic as a result of the different statuses of their exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 virus. We assumed that the behavior of anglers who have not experienced the disease (were not ill and not sure if ill) will be similar and, on the other hand, different from the behavior of those who have experienced COVID-19. The web-assisted interviews survey was used among 586 anglers with different COVID-19 disease experience statuses. Their pandemic behavior and activities by four age groups were studied using non-metric multidimensional scaling. Redundancy analysis has been used to identify the relationship between anglers' life attitudes and socioeconomic and demographic factors, taking into account their preferences and involvement in fishing. We have demonstrated that the behavior of anglers who have not experienced COVID-19 disease and do not present a reckless attitude toward pandemic threats, do not show significant differences from the life attitudes of the group experienced by the SARS-CoV-2 virus. These two groups comprise more than 70% of anglers. However, the rest show a lack of interest in an aware diagnosis of their health and a low level of acceptance of self-restraint in the area of direct social contact. Unawareness, combined with ignorance, could be a potential factor in the transmission of the virus while fishing. The behaviors of almost 30% of anglers are particularly risky when combined with a strong need to fish in the company of friends and familiar people. Anglers' social identity should be tapped by fishery managers. Targeted educational campaigns should be aimed at groups around specific fishing spots. The need for self-limitation under the pandemic should be promoted for the benefit of the general public and to maintain the reputation of angling as a safe recreational activity.

Teamwork Makes the String Work: A Pilot Test of the Loose String Task with African Crested Porcupines (Hystrix cristata)

Comparative researchers have heavily focused their studies of social cognition on species that live in large social groups, while neglecting other potential predictors of social cognition. African crested porcupines (Hystrix cristata) are relatively rare among mammals in that they are cooperative breeders that pair for life. Little is known about their social cognition, but they are good candidates for exploring cooperative behavior due to the need to coordinate behavior to cooperatively raise young. Cooperation, as defined in this study, is the process by which two or more participants perform independent actions on an object to obtain a reward for all parties. Humans are thought to outperform all other species in the frequency and magnitude of cooperative behaviors. Yet, only by studying a variety of species can researchers fully understand the likely selection pressures for cooperation, such as cooperative breeding. Here, we pilot tested the feasibility of the popular loose-string task with a mated pair of African crested porcupines, a task that required the porcupines to cooperatively pull ropes to access an out of reach platform baited with food rewards. Other species presented with this task were able to work together to receive rewards but did not always demonstrate understanding of the role of their partner. The porcupines achieved success but did not appear to coordinate their actions or solicit behavior from their partner. Thus, similar to other species, they may achieve success in this task without taking their partner’s role into account. This study demonstrates that the loose string task can be used to assess cooperation in porcupines. However, further experiments are needed to assess the porcupine’s understanding of their partner’s role under this paradigm.

Family Morality and Tolerance for Corruption

A tolerant attitude towards corruption is considered in connection with the norms of family morality, aimed primarily at maintaining the well-being of loved ones and relatives. Based on the obtained em­pirical data, it is argued that the norms of family morality compel the closest relatives of a corrupt offi­cial not to protest against illegal income and not to condemn their corrupt relative for his or her illegal activities. Family morality in this situation is opposed to public morality, aimed at the common good and the observance of laws. It is proposed to consider the conflict of the society norms and family norms as necessary in all those situations where the interests of a large social group (society) do not coincide with the interests of a small social group (family) included in it.

Social norms as a psychocultural factor of personality’s life activity

The article examines the theme of social norms as a factor and conditions of psychocultural development of the personality and society. It has been analyzed the postulates that normativeness is inherent in any social relations, and this, in turn, makes it possible to achieve coherence in interpersonal relations and to obtain social compromise, etc. It is substantiated the importance and role of social norms as important attributes of the human’s life organization from ancient times to the present, where they appear as everyday rules, standards and laws of civil behavior adopted in society. It is also highlighted the functioning of socionorms as models and prescriptions of citizens’ behavior in society at the level of: macroenvironment (large social groups: people, nations, ethnicities, etc.), microenvironment (work team, student group, family, etc.) as well as at the personality level. Multilevel classifications of social norms in socio-humanitarian sciences are singled out (hard, soft, medium and high-value, total, complete, partial, fragmentary, professional, family, official, institutional, group, etc.). In addition, the functional multifacetedness of socionorms has been proved, as they reflect reality, characterize its psychocultural content filling, influence it, organize it in a totalitarian or democratic, liberal or kleptocratic way. It is revealed as well a social norm as one that, on the one hand, determines in a specific society the boundaries, framework (range), measure, format and even the balance of acceptable behavior, activity of people, social groups and organizations, on the other hand – limits all possible behavior of people in society. Four levels of social norms’ influence on the behavior of the person in the environment and four main types of socio-normative behavior of the personality are singled out (“supporter” or “disciplined”, “adapter”, “original”, “opponent” or “undisciplined”). The module of norms in the A.V. Furman’s theory of modular developmental learning (TMDL) is substantiated (goals, plans, projects, programs, regulations, rules, instructions, standards, etc.), that operates in the defining phases – normimitation, normcreating, metanormcreating.

Великий вихід українського народу (феномен переміщених осіб 2022 року)

The article examines a unique historical event – a mass “exodus” of Ukrainian civilians caused by the Russian invasion in 2022. Since February 24, 2022, about 15 million have been displaced. This category can be divided into internally displaced persons (≈8 million) and Ukrainians who found temporary shelter abroad (≈7 million). Ukrainian refugees are a large social group whose members are united by the shared status of displaced persons and common problems typical for refugees. The article examines the internal structure of the group and five “waves” of internally displaced persons, differing in the time of exit from places of permanent residence, social composition, and attitudes. The article identifies a category of citizens who refused to leave and remained in their homes. Likewise, the paper also sheds light on the perspective of the invading power toward civilians. Firstly, the aggressor viewed civilians as hostages and means of blackmail; secondly, it provoked a mass exodus to pressure European countries; thirdly, the aggressor used local communities as a source of support for its own military; fourthly, Ukrainian civilians were used as a “biomass”. It is concluded that the social capital acquired during the previous decades of Ukrainian independence played an essential role in preventing panic, chaos, and social catastrophe. The article suggests that it could be beneficial to design “exit strategies” from large cities and specific regions to ensure Ukrainian civilians’ safety.

Siberian peasantry during the First world war and revolution: details of a social and political portrait

The article presents an analysis of the social and political processes that took place in a Siberian village during the years of World War I and the revolution of 1917. It is noted that migration from the central regions of the country had a great influence on formation of the rural population of the region at the turn of the 19th20th centuries, and the social structure of a Siberian village was more complex than in the center, in addition to traditional ones, there were such large social groups as old-timers and settlers, who differed not only in their property status, but also in their mentality. The absence of landownership and access to the Russian and world markets after the construction of the Siberian railway ensured the intensive development of agriculture. This was facilitated by the broad development of rural cooperatives. The World War I had a dual effect on Siberian peasantry. On the one hand, mass mobilization, having deprived villages of a million workers caused an acute labor shortage in the countryside, on the other hand, the rise in prices for agricultural products contributed to enrichment of villages and accelerated its social differentiation. The attitude of the peasantry to the key events of the Russian revolution is analyzed. The process of transformations in a Siberian village from March 1917 to May 1918 has been reconstructed. The struggle of political parties for the peasant masses is shown. The activities of rural self-government bodies (committee, zemstvo, council) and peasant unions are studied. It is concluded that the Siberian peasantry, after the overthrow of the autocracy, was drawn into political processes regardless of their desire, and more often in spite of it. In the mess of changing authorities, taking a wait-and-see position, it did not participate in the struggle of the opposing sides and, regardless of whoever was in power, evaded paying taxes and other obligatory contributions. Siberian villages remained aloof from social upheavals longer than the city. It not only relied on its own material resources, but in the conditions of the weakening of power verticals, it tried to find internal regulators of social relations, which included such archaic forms as rural gatherings and lynching. Material interest remained a priority for the peasants, against which moral norms could be subject to significant adjustments. Relations with the authorities and the outside world as a whole were built on these principles. The peasantry consistently defended the economic independence that they received after the overthrow of the autocracy from any external encroachment.

What Can Game Theory Tell Us about an AI ‘Theory of Mind’?

Game theory includes a rich source of methods for analysing strategic interactions where there are a small number of agents, each having only a few choices. In more complex settings though, where there are many choices over indefinite time horizons involving large social groups, these methods are unlikely to fully capture the causes of agent behaviour. If agents are able to simplify the task of understanding what others might do by modelling the constraints of others, particularly unobservable cognitive constraints, then the possible behavioural outcomes can be similarly restricted, thereby reducing the complexity of a social interaction. Having a cognitive representation of the unobserved causal states of others is an aspect of a ‘Theory of Mind’ and it plays a central role in the psychology of social interactions. In this article I examine a selection of results on the theory of mind and connect these with the ‘game theory of mind’ to draw conclusions regarding the complexity of one-on-one and large-scale social coordination. To make this explicit, I will illustrate the relationship between the two psychological terms ‘introspection’ and ‘theory of mind’ and the economic analysis of game theory, while retaining as much as possible of the richness of the psychological concepts. It will be shown that game theory plays an important role in modelling interpersonal relationships for both biological and artificial agents, but it is not yet the whole story, and some psychological refinements to game theory are discussed.

Social psychology of the crowd in the works of foreign scientists of the late 19th - early 20th century

The article examines the ideas about the socio-psychological characteristics of the crowd described in the works of foreign scientists of the late 19th - early 20th century, analyzes the works on this topic by S. Sighele, G. Le Bon, G. Tarde, O. Cabanes and L. Nass. In the course of the study, a generalized picture of the views of these specialists on the phenomenology of large social groups was obtained. In general, it is recognized that the crowd is impulsive, unstable, irresponsible, susceptible to suggestions, gullible, intolerant and conservative. The behavior of an individual in a group differs from his behavior outside it, and the average intelligence of the crowd is generally lower than the individual. Of particular interest in the works under consideration is the criminal crowd, in which all the features of large social groups are expressed to an extreme degree. Its features are the susceptibility to imitation and suggestion, large numbers, moral intoxication, actualization of instinct and the specific, mostly marginal composition of the crowd. The merging of individuals into a crowd occurs with the help of a community of ideas and beliefs, through suggestion and imitation. The results obtained in the course of the study can be used both in social and political psychology and in historical science, where the scope of their application is outlined by the boundaries of mass phenomena of the past, present and future.

MARKETING AS A FUNCTION OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF PHILOSOPHY OF UTILITARISM AND AXIOLOGY

The article proposes a method for managing the development of consumer properties of goods using the categories of utility and value. The author considers the content of the philosophy of utilitarianism and axiology. The author proposes to use their fundamental principles as the basis of the marketing function for the development of consumer properties of goods. Utility, according to the theory of utilitarianism, is capable of shaping such social behavior that increases the level of satisfaction with the everyday life of the bulk of consumers. Value in the everyday life appears in the desire of individuals and large social groups to obtain real quantitative benefits from the consumption of purchased goods. Finally, utility of individual consumer properties is represented by the value of the entire product for sale. That is the task of marketing in business. The solution to this task is the real substantive connection between the philosophy of utilitarianism and axiology with the functional tasks of marketing to develop the functional characteristics of the good. These characteristics, in the process of buying and selling, are perceived by buyers as its consumer properties, by which they judge the value of the purchase. The author proposes to use these philosophical principles in solving the functional tasks of marketing for the development of goods by the means of a three-level model for analyzing the consumer properties of goods. According to this model at the first level the author proposes to use an indicator that reflects the value of the purchase, for example, car fuel efficiency. At the second and third levels there are the consumer properties of individual components, aggregates that consumers integrate in consciousness into the value of the entire product. This value determines the behavior of the buyer when making purchases.