Large Population Centers Research Articles

Cities and milk consumption in Europe, 1890-1936: the emergence of a new market in Spain

One of the main features of the European nutritional transition involved the wide-spread increase in milk consumption, a singular process as it involved the emergence of new consumption preferences. This transformation will be examined here using Spain as a case study. Even up until the 1890s milk was not considered a valuable dietary component in Spain, and was normally consumed only by those who were on liquid diets for medical reasons. By the 1930s, however, milk was regarded as a basic foodstuff, especially for children. Our main hypothesis is that cities played a central role in this change in preferences. Large population centres provided an avenue to spread new knowledge of nutrition and food hygiene, while cities allowed social economies of scale that made it easier to implement new public hygiene measures and to publicize or distribute new products. We also show that the spreading of milk consumption in cities progressed slowly in Spain, because until well into the twentieth century supply could only rely on short-range distribution networks.

Exploration and Analysis of CO2 + Hydrocarbons Mixtures as Working Fluids for Trans-critical ORC

ORCs (Organic Rankine Cycles) are of great significance for energy conservation and CO2 emission reductions owing to their usage in converting low grade waste heat to electrical power. The working fluid properties are the key to getting good cycle performance. The advantages of CO2 and hydrocarbon working fluids for use in ORCs are investigated here for six binary mixtures: CO2+propane/n-butane/iso-butane/n-pentane/iso-pentane/neo-pentane. A transcritical ORC simulation program was used to predict the cycle performance for various hydrocarbon mass fraction working fluids for a turbine inlet temperature of 453.15 K and inlet pressure of 1.3pc. The predicted cycle performance is used to divide the six working fluids into three categories relative to the thermal efficiency of an ORC using pure CO2. The first working fluid type (CO2+propane) has increasing efficiencies with increasing hydrocarbon mass fraction while the second type have maximum thermal efficiencies at hydrocarbon mass fractions of 0.3, and the third type has maximums at a mass fraction of 0.2. In addition, the thermodynamics relative efficiency, ξ, is highest for CO2+propane and then decreases for CO2+iso-butane, CO2+ n-butane, CO2+neo-pentane, CO2+iso-pentane, and CO2+n-pentane with the lowest. Then, the cycle efficiencies of the three working fluid types were analyzed from the perspective of the hydrocarbon molecular structure. The results show that longer main carbon chains and branched carbon chains have larger pc and Tc, with this critical property leading to higher efficiencies at low hydrocarbon mass fractions. Lower p′c and T′c lead to higher efficiencies at high hydrocarbon concentrations. Thus, there is a trade-off between the cycle efficiency and the hydrocarbon mass fraction. Finally, the three best working fluid mixtures, 0.3CO2/0.7propane, 0.7CO2/0.3neo-pentane and 0.8CO2/0.2pentane, were further analyzed according to their cycle characteristics. The 0.3CO2/0.7propane mixture working fluid had the best cycle efficiency for these conditions.

The elimination of the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti, from Brisbane, Australia: The role of surveillance, larval habitat removal and policy.

Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) is a highly invasive mosquito whose global distribution has fluctuated dramatically over the last 100 years. In Australia the distribution of Ae. aegypti once spanned the eastern seaboard, for 3,000 km north to south. However, during the 1900s this distribution markedly reduced and the mosquito disappeared from its southern range. Numerous hypotheses have been proffered for this retraction, however quantitative evidence of the mechanisms driving the disappearance are lacking. We examine historical records during the period when Ae. aegypti disappeared from Brisbane, the largest population centre in Queensland, Australia. In particular, we focus on the targeted management of Ae. aegypti by government authorities, that led to local elimination, something rarely observed in large cities. Numerous factors are likely to be responsible including the removal of larval habitat, especially domestic rainwater tanks, in combination with increased mosquito surveillance and regulatory enforcement. This account of historical events as they pertain to the elimination of Ae. aegypti from Brisbane, will inform assessments of the risks posed by recent human responses to climate change and the reintroduction of 300,000 rainwater tanks into the State over the past decade.

A landscape of tells: Geophysics and microstratigraphy at two Neolithic tell sites on the Great Hungarian Plain

Nucleated tell sites emerged on the Great Hungarian Plain nearly a millennium after the earliest agricultural communities established sedentary settlements at the beginning of the Neolithic period. Once established, these unprecedentedly large population centers had a dramatic impact on their local environment. In this article, we present the results of our recent research at two Neolithic tells in the Körös Region of the Great Hungarian Plain. These sites – Vésztő-Mágor and Szeghalom-Kovácshalom – were established at roughly the same time and were located on the same branch of the Sebes-Körös River. Focusing on two methods – geophysics and microstratigraphy – we compare how these two nearby sites were established, evolved, and were abandoned within their local landscapes. Whereas geophysical surveys provide a horizontal picture of how the sites expanded over space, microstratigraphic studies provide a vertical perspective of the social processes that built the tells over time. Although both settlements were established at the same time, the sites developed in very different ways. We attribute these differences in the micro-regional trajectories to specific traditions associated with different local communities.

Spatial Variation of Sea Level Rise at Atlantic and Mediterranean Coastline of Europe

The inundation impact of sea level rise (SLR) is critical, since coastal regions of Europe house important critical infrastructures and large population centers. According to International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) studies, the analysis of the SLR problem is complicated. Beyond the reported complexities involved in the analysis of this phenomenon, the expected spatial variability of SLR in oceans further complicates this analysis. Spatial variability of SLR in oceans is both observed and also expected, according to IPCC studies. Estimation of spatial variation of SLR in oceans is necessary to identify the level of potential threats that may impact different coastline regions. Identification of geographic patterns of SLR based on local coastal data has been reported in the literature. Unfortunately, these estimates cannot be used in predictive analysis over a century. Thus, the solution of this problem using mathematical models is the other alternative that can be employed. Modeling solutions to this problem is currently in its infancy, and further studies in this field are needed. In this study, a methodology developed by the authors is used to estimate the SLR for the Atlantic and the Mediterranean coastline of Europe that also includes the other oceans. This effort utilizes the dynamic system model (DSM) with spatial analysis capability (S-DSM) to predict the regional sea level change. Results obtained provide consistent assessment of spatial variability of SLR pattern in oceans as well as the temperature changes over the 21st century. This approach may also be used in other coastal regions to aid management decision in a timely manner.

PHArmacists' perspective oN the Take hOme naloxone prograM (The PHANTOM Study).

To evaluate pharmacists' attitudes toward the Take Home Naloxone (THN) program and identify areas that could be improved to support pharmacists' involvement. Pharmacists on the Alberta College of Pharmacists' directory were invited to complete an online survey between July 10 and August 8, 2016. The survey consisted of 19 questions. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data. Four hundred seventy pharmacists completed the survey (response rate = 11.2%). A total of 76.8% of respondents strongly agreed or agreed that pharmacists should be screening patients to identify those at risk of opioid overdose. Full-time pharmacists were more likely to agree (p = 0.02). A total of 79.8% of respondents strongly agreed or agreed that pharmacists should be recommending THN kits. Pharmacists working in large population centres (p = 0.008) and full-time pharmacists (p = 0.02) were more likely to agree with this statement. Furthermore, 60.6% of pharmacists were extremely willing or very willing to participate in the THN program. Pharmacists in practice for ≤15 years were more willing to participate in the THN program than pharmacists in practice >15 years (p = 0.03). The most common perceived barriers to implementation of the THN program were lack of time in pharmacists' current work environment and education about the program. Overall, pharmacists had positive attitudes toward screening patients to identify those at risk of opioid overdose, recommending THN kits and willingness to participate in the program. Factors that may facilitate increased participation in the program include addressing time issues and improving education about the THN program.

Marine Socio‐Environmental Covariates: queryable global layers of environmental and anthropogenic variables for marine ecosystem studies

Biophysical conditions, including climate, environmental stress, and habitat availability, are key drivers of many ecological processes (e.g., community assembly and productivity) and associated ecosystem services (e.g., carbon sequestration and fishery production). Furthermore, anthropogenic impacts such as coastal development and fishing can have drastic effects on the structure and function of marine ecosystems. Scientists need to account for environmental variation and human impacts to accurately model, manage, and conserve marine ecosystems. Although there are many types of environmental data available from global remote sensing and open-source data products, some are inaccessible to potential end-users because they exist as global layers in high temporal and spatial resolutions which require considerable computational power to process. Additionally, coastal locations often suffer from missing data or data quality issues which limit the utility of some global marine products for coastal sites. Herein we present the Marine Socio-Environmental Covariates dataset for the global oceans, which consists of environmental and anthropogenic variables summarized in ecologically relevant ways. The dataset includes four sets of environmental variables related to biophysical conditions (net primary productivity models corrected for shallow-water reflectance, wave energy including sheltered-coastline corrections) and landscape context (coral reef and land cover within varying radii). We also present two sets of anthropogenic variables, human population density (within varying radii) and distance to large population center, which can serve as indicators of local human impacts. We have paired global, summarized layers available for download with an online data querying platform that allows users to extract data for specific point locations with finer control of summary statistics. In creating these global layers and online platform, we hope to make the data accessible to a wide array of end-users with the goal of advancing marine ecosystem studies.

Erratum

Erratum

Effect of Protein Corona on Silver Nanoparticle Stabilization and Ion Release Kinetics in Artificial Seawater.

In parallel with the growing use of nanoparticle-containing products, their release into the environment over the coming years is expected to increase significantly. With many large population centers located in near-coastal areas, and increasing evidence that various nanoparticles may be toxic to a range of organisms, biota in estuarine and coastal waters may be particularly vulnerable. While size effects may be important in cases, silver nanoparticles have been found to be toxic in large part due to their release of silver ions. However, there is relatively little data available on how nanoparticle coatings can affect silver ion release in estuarine or marine waters. We have found that albumin, as a model for biocorona-forming macromolecules which nanoparticles may encounter in wastewater streams, stabilizes silver colloids from agglomeration in high salinity marine waters by electrosteric repulsion for long time periods. A minimum mass ratio of about 130 for albumin:silver nanoparticles (40 nm) was required for stable dispersion in seawater. Increasing albumin concentration was also found to reduce dissolution of nanoparticles in seawater with up to 3.3 times lower concentrations of silver ions noted. Persistent colloids and slow sustained ion release may have important consequences for biota in these environmental compartments.

Is There a Credit Union Difference? Comparing Canadian Credit Union and Bank Branch Locations

This study of credit union and bank branch locations and neighbourhoods in Canada seeks to discover if there is a distinct credit union niche. The study builds on an earlier paper of credit unions and banks in the US which found that credit unions in Wisconsin, Arizona and New Hampshire were more likely to be located in lower-income areas than bank branches (Mook, Maiorano & Quarter, 2015). In Canada, we find that credit union branches are over-represented in rural areas, and under-represented in large population centres relative to bank branches. Additionally, credit unions are overrepresented in middle income areas and underrepresented in high income areas compared to bank branches both at the national level and in all provinces where differences are statistically significant. Another significant finding is that while both credit unions and banks cater to marginalized communities, the type of marginalized communities they cater to distinguishes them. Making use of the Canadian Marginalization Index, we find credit union branches in Canada to be overrepresented in communities marginalized along the dimensions of Material Deprivation and Dependency, while bank branches are overrepresented in communities marginalized along the dimension of Residential Instability and Ethnic Concentration.

Fishing, pollution, climate change, and the long-term decline of coral reefs off Havana, Cuba

Understanding temporal and spatial variation of coral reef communities allows us to analyze the relative effects of local stressors, such as fishing and eutrophication, and global stressors, such as ocean warming. To test for spatial and temporal changes in coral reef communities, we combined recent benthic and fish surveys from 2016 with long-term data, dating back to the late 1990s, from four zones located at different distances from Central Havana, Cuba's largest population center. These changes may indicate the shifting importance of local vs global stressors affecting reef communities. Regardless of the distance from Havana, we found that coral cover was uniformly low (approximately 10%), whereas macroalgal abundance was often high (approximately 65%). Similarly, fish biomass was low across zones, particularly for herbivorous fishes (approximately 12 g m–2) that are critical ecological drivers of reef structure and coral resilience. Analyses of longer-term trends revealed that coral cover near Havana has been below about 10% since at least 1995, potentially because of local stressors. In contrast, reefs farther from Havana maintained relatively high coral cover (approximately 30%) until the early 2000s, but declined more recently to approximately 15%, putting them near the Caribbean-wide average. These distinct spatial and temporal trajectories of reef communities may be the result of the expansion of local stressors away from Havana as the human population increased, or as fishers ventured farther away to exploit new resources. Alternatively, the more recent decline of reefs farther from population centers may have resulted from increasingly frequent global stressors, such as bleaching events and hurricanes.

Monitoring Microcirculatory Blood Flow during Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Paediatric Cardiac Surgery Patients as a Predictor for Anaerobic Metabolism.

Improving tissue oxygenation is one of most important tasks in management of low cardiac output. Central venous oxygen saturation (ScvO2) and lactate are established criteria for monitoring the adequacy of tissue oxygenation. The venous-to-arterial carbon dioxide difference [P(v-a)CO2] is inversely associated with cardiac output. To study the use of P(v-a)CO2/C(a-v)O2 ratio as a marker of low cardiac output during Cardiopulmonary Bypass (CPB) in paediatric cardiac surgical patients. The present study was a prospective observational study conducted over a period of nine months from 1st August 2015 to 30th April 2016. A total of 110 children were enrolled, who underwent CPB during cardiac surgery. The CPB time, Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP), flow rate, cross clamp time, were recorded for all the patients as well as Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) and Venous Blood Gas (VBG) were checked at four different points of time: 1) Before CPB, 2) 10 minutes after initiation of CPB, 3) 30 minutes on CPB and 4) off CPB. The results indicated that Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (ROC curve) at 30 minute of CPB time P(v-a)CO2/C(a-v)O2 was more specific and sensitive than lactate to detect anaerobic metabolism. Decrease platelet count was significant on second postoperative day. The present study suggests the use of P(v-a)CO2/C(a-v)O2 ratio as a marker to detect low flow on CPB. Our study was single centric and with a small size, studies involving large population and multiple centers are required to support the recent findings.

Estimating the recreational harvest of fish from a nearshore designed artificial reef using a pragmatic approach

Designed artificial reefs (ARs) are deployed for various purposes including the enhancement of recreational fisheries. The ability to assess recreational harvest is important for determining the effectiveness of AR deployments. Harvest estimation at AR fisheries pose many logistical and budgetary challenges. We present a pragmatic approach to estimate harvest at an AR off coastal Sydney, Australia, that combines existing datasets and a cost-effective sampling design from two different time periods. Fishing effort data collected from June 2013 to May 2014 were derived directly from digital images of the AR and were validated by direct observation. Multiple datasets were then integrated to obtain a list of taxa that are harvested by recreational fishers within the AR area. Data from a series of probability-based surveys conducted prior to the deployment of the AR from March 2007 to February 2009 were used to obtain estimates of harvest rates for these taxa. Harvest at the reef was estimated by multiplying fishing effort and these harvest rates together. Total annual recreational harvest from the AR during June 2013–May 2014 was estimated to be 1016±82 fish by number, 700±59kg of fish by weight, and 12,504kg per km2. Standardized harvest at the Sydney AR was relatively high (2.3–43.6 times larger) compared to other fishery areas from which the fishable area is known. Harvest at the AR was dominated by 6 functional groups (ambush predators, leatherjackets, large to medium pelagic fish, small pelagic fish, medium demersal predators and large demersal predators), which accounted for 92% of the total annual harvest by number, and 95% of the total annual harvest by weight. Comparisons of standardized harvest between the Sydney AR and other fishery areas revealed two distinct groups, a) the AR and Swansea channel, a marine-dominated entrance to a large estuary, and b) all other fishery areas. The use of existing datasets from a previous time period to represent current conditions in a fishery can be subject to potential bias since harvest composition and harvest rates were calculated using data collected prior to the implementation of the AR. However, this pragmatic approach may be the only viable option when the implementation of probability-based survey methods is logistically complex and prohibitively costly.Future studies attempting to estimate harvest at small, discrete AR fisheries located near large population centers should therefore consider an integrated methodology that combines existing datasets and cost-effective sampling designs.

Spatial Pattern Analysis of Rural Settlements in Connection with the Earthquake Vulnerability (Case Study: Central District of Marand County)

Spatial Pattern Analysis of Rural Settlements in Connection with the Earthquake Vulnerability (Case Study: Central District of Marand County)

Using Water Footprints to Identify Alternatives for Conserving Local Water Resources in California

As a management tool for addressing water consumption issues, footprints have become increasingly utilized on scales ranging from global to personal. A question posed by this paper is whether water footprint data that are routinely compiled for particular regions may be used to assess the effectiveness of actions taken by local residents to conserve local water resources. The current California drought has affected an agriculturally productive region with large population centers that consume a portion of the locally produced food, and the state’s arid climate demands a large volume of blue water as irrigation from its dwindling surface and ground water resources. Although California exports most of its food products, enough is consumed within the state so that residents shifting their food choices and/or habits could save as much or more local blue water as their reduction of household or office water use. One of those shifts is reducing the intake of animal-based products that require the most water of any food group on both a gravimetric and caloric basis. Another shift is reducing food waste, which represents a shared responsibility among consumers and retailers, however, consumer preferences ultimately drive much of this waste.

Improvement of time measurement with the INO-ICAL resistive plate chambers

There are many sources of position dependent variation of the intrinsic gain of a single gap RPC, e.g. variation of the thickness of the glass electrodes, the buttons and spacers, different composition of the gas mixture due to improper gas flow, leakage etc. One of the dominant components of the time resolution of a large area single gap RPC is this position dependent gain. Also, there is a variation of timing information as a function of the strip multiplicity as well as the lateral position of the trajectory in the RPC strip coordinate. This paper describes the technique of offline time correction to achieve a time resolution better than a ns. This technique is validated using a large cosmic ray dataset collected with a stack of twelve, 1×1 m2 RPCs at TIFR. This paper also mentions a few alternate solutions to improve the time resolution during the operational phase of the INO-ICAL experiment. All these solutions are not only valid for INO, but also for any experiment with large RPC detectors.

Impact of Travel Distance and Urban-Rural Status on the Multidisciplinary Management of Rectal Cancer.

Optimal treatment of rectal cancer (RC) requires multidisciplinary care. We examined whether distance to treatment center or community size impacts access to multimodality care and population-based outcomes in RC. Patients diagnosed with stage II/III RC from 1999 to 2009 and treated at 1 of 6 regional cancer centers in British Columbia were reviewed. Distance to treatment center was determined for each patient. Communities were classified as rural, small, medium, and large population centers. Logistic and Cox regression models assessed associations of distance and community size with treatment received as well as cancer-specific (CSS) and overall survival (OS). Of 3,158 patients, 93.6% underwent surgery, 86.3% received radiotherapy, and 51.3% were treated with adjuvant chemotherapy (AC). Median time from diagnosis to oncologic consultation was longer for those >100 km from a treatment center or residing in medium/rural communities. Logistic regression demonstrated no correlation between distance or community size and receipt of treatment modality. Univariate analysis showed similar CSS (P = .18, .88) and OS (P = .36, .47) based on community size and distance, respectively. In multivariate analysis, distance >100 km had inferior CSS (Hazard Ratio [HR] 1.39, 95% CI: 1.03-1.88; P = .031). There was no consistent trend between decreasing community size and outcomes; however, living in a small center was associated with improved OS (HR 0.58, 95% CI: 0.38-0.88; P = .011) and CSS (HR 0.42, 95% CI: 0.25-0.70; P = .001). In this population-based study, there were no urban-rural differences in access to multidisciplinary care, but increased distance may be associated with worse cancer-specific outcomes.

Check the score: Field validation of Street Smart Walk Score in Alberta, Canada.

Walk Score® is a proprietary walkability metric that ranks locations by proximity to destinations, with emerging health promotion applications for increasing walking as physical activity. Currently, field validations of Walk Score® have only occurred in metropolitan regions of the United States; moreover, many studies employ an earlier Walk Score® version utilizing straight line distance. To address this gap, we conducted a field validation of the newest, network-based metric for three municipal types along a rural-urban continuum in Alberta, Canada. In 2015, using street-level systematic observations collected in Bonnyville, Medicine Hat, and North Central Edmonton in 2008 (part of the Community Health and the Built Environment (CHBE) project), we reverse engineered 2181 scores with the network Walk Score® algorithm. We computed means, 95% confidence intervals, and t-tests (α = 0.05) for both sets of scores. Applying the Clifford-Richardson adjustment for spatial autocorrelation, we calculated Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficients (rho, rs) and adjusted p-values to measure the strength of association between the derived scores and original network scores provided by Walk Score®. Spearman's rho for scores were very high for Bonnyville (rs = 0.950, adjusted p < 0.001), and high for Medicine Hat (rs = 0.790, adjusted p < 0.001) and North Central Edmonton (rs = 0.763, adjusted p < 0.001). High to very high correlations between derived scores and Walk Scores® field validated this metric across small, medium, and large population centres in Alberta, Canada. However, we suggest caution in interpreting Walk Score® for planning and evaluating health promotion interventions, since the strength of association between destinations and walking may vary across different municipal types.

Profit-Driven Prosecution and the Competitive Bidding Process

Prosecutors are the most powerful organs of the criminal justice system, enjoying discretion in decision-making far beyond that of law enforcement officials, defense attorneys, and judges. Perhaps due to this exceptional position, contemporary understandings and perceptions of criminal prosecutors have tended to be largely positive; evidence of such a normative understanding of the prosecutor and its role may be found from a variety of sources, from (other) law review articles to pop cultural touchstones in television and movies. The prevailing “prosecutorial norm” in the public consciousness embodies 1) a full-time government employee, 2) who devotes all of their time and professional energies to criminal prosecution, and 3) tries to somehow do or affect some vague notion of “justice.” Such norms, however, are regularly challenged and flouted when the prosecutorial function is outsourced. While the outsourcing of nearly every function of the criminal adjudicative process has attracted great attention among scholars and policymakers, a greater critical lens must be focused on prosecutors.The hazards of prosecutorial outsourcing have largely been neglected because existing prosecutorial scholarship focuses on the United States Attorney or district attorneys’ offices in large, metropolitan areas. Not all prosecutorial offices are created equal, however. Cities, towns, and other small political subdivisions throughout the country frequently hire prosecutors on a part-time basis through a competitive bidding process, releasing requests for proposals (RFPs) in an effort to procure bids. This practice, however, may be observed not only in small or rural municipalities, but also in cities located near larger population centers. Examples of such municipalities include Ferguson, Missouri, or Kyle, Texas. Such local governments often work with budgets that are not expansive enough to hire a full-time city attorney or prosecutor. Beyond demonstrating the qualifications the applicant attorneys or firms vying for a prosecution contract may have to serve as good prosecutors, applications from such applicants must also demonstrate cost effectiveness by detailing what budget and compensation is required during the term of service specified by the RFP.While engaging in a competitive bidding process may seem like a smart way to handle the problem of governmental waste and financial inefficiencies, it introduces a host of challenges and negative externalities. This Article sheds light on the problems caused by introducing an overtly economic calculation (how cheaply and how profitably the prosecutorial function may be fulfilled) into the criminal adjudicative process. This practice not only flouts American Bar Association and National District Attorney Association prosecutorial standards, but also undermines the prosecutorial norms described above in ways that are likely to destabilize confidence — and the social cohesion born of such confidence — in local criminal justice systems. This practice has the risk, however, of expanding beyond the reach of non-metropolitan jurisdictions to larger counties, cities, and local governments as budgets continue to shrink across the board and devolution and privatization continue to be advanced as cure-alls to economic woes.

Practices and perceptions on water resource sustainability in ecovillages

AbstractIn many areas of the world, groups of people have attempted to create urban landscapes that follow the principles of environmental sustainability. To this end, groups have devised alternative models, such as ecovillages, where low‐impact handling is used and a way of life different from that of large population centers is adopted. Although these villages exist, their efficiency in the conservation of natural resources has not been effectively evaluated. This study evaluated the practices used by two Brazilian ecovillages to conserve water resources to assess whether this new concept of living is indeed successful in meeting sustainability goals. We selected 25 indicators of water sustainability, and using the compromise programming method, we quantified the distance between those landscapes self‐referenced as sustainable and an ideal hypothetical scenario. We also interpreted the communities perceptions using the distance between the current situations and the envisioned scenario. We concluded that both ecovillage are far from technically ideal scenario, but the communities have a strong sense of their limitations in implementing water resources conservation. The communities attributed this fact primarily to deficiencies in the shared management.