Larger Phrases Research Articles

Image Based Search Engine Using Deep Learning

Abstract: Machine the learning's field of image recognition as well as classification is one that is expanding quickly. The business ramifications of object identification, which is a crucial component of picture categorization, are enormous. A procedure to identify and recognize an item or property in a digital video or picture, image recognition is a subset of artificial intelligence. A larger phrase used to describe techniques for obtaining, processing, and analyzing data from the actual environment is computer vision. The highly dimensional data generates judgements that are expressed as numerical or pictorial information. Artificial intelligence (AI) also encompasses event detection, object identification, learning, picture the rebuilding process, and tracking of video in addition to image classification. This project outlines a methodical strategy to organizing using machine learning. digital photos. Convolutional neural network (CNN) and deep neural networks are two classifiers that may be combined to improve classification performance. Over the past several years, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) have emerged as the leading approach for image classification and object recognition tasks. On several of the picture categorization databases, they now outperform humans. Most of these datasets are built around the idea of tangible classes; photographs are categorized according to the kind of item they include. Using Abstract classes, this project will propose a unique picture classifying dataset that should be simple for humans to solve but difficult for CNNs to fully understand. This dataset and potential variants of the dataset are used to assess the classifications performance of common CNN designs. Interesting topics for future study are found

Call combinations and compositional processing in wild chimpanzees

Through syntax, i.e., the combination of words into larger phrases, language can express a limitless number of messages. Data in great apes, our closest-living relatives, are central to the reconstruction of syntax’s phylogenetic origins, yet are currently lacking. Here, we provide evidence for syntactic-like structuring in chimpanzee communication. Chimpanzees produce “alarm-huus” when surprised and “waa-barks” when potentially recruiting conspecifics during aggression or hunting. Anecdotal data suggested chimpanzees combine these calls specifically when encountering snakes. Using snake presentations, we confirm call combinations are produced when individuals encounter snakes and find that more individuals join the caller after hearing the combination. To test the meaning-bearing nature of the call combination, we use playbacks of artificially-constructed call combinations and both independent calls. Chimpanzees react most strongly to call combinations, showing longer looking responses, compared with both independent calls. We propose the “alarm-huu + waa-bark” represents a compositional syntactic-like structure, where the meaning of the call combination is derived from the meaning of its parts. Our work suggests that compositional structures may not have evolved de novo in the human lineage, but that the cognitive building-blocks facilitating syntax may have been present in our last common ancestor with chimpanzees.

Possession and nominalization in Dan: Evidence for a general theory of categories

Dan, a Mandean language of the Ivory Coast, marks the alienable possessors of simple nonrelational nouns differently from the inalienable possessors of relational nouns: only the former occur with the particle ɓa. This difference also shows up in nominalizations. When a verb is nominalized, its theme argument is expressed like the possessor of a relational noun, without ɓa, whereas when an adjective is nominalized, its theme argument is expressed like the possessor of a nonrelational noun, with ɓa. We show that this generalization holds for both a low type of nominalization, in which the nominalizer combines directly with the root before that root combines with any arguments, and for a high type of nominalization, in which the nominalizer combines with a larger phrase. We account for this difference between deverbal nominalization and deadjectival nominalization using Baker’s (2003) theory of the lexical categories, according to which verbs intrinsically combine directly with a theme argument, whereas adjectives do not, but only become predicates of a theme argument with the help of a functional head Pred. This theory also accounts for the fact that denominal nouns like ‘childhood’ pattern with deadjectival nominalizations in this respect. This study thus provides new empirical support for Baker’s theory of lexical categories, as opposed to theories which assume a stronger parallelism across the various lexical categories.

Statistical Translation After Source Reordering: Oracles, Context-Aware Models, and Empirical Analysis

AbstractIn source reordering the order of the source words is permuted to minimize word order differences with the target sentence and then fed to a translation model. Earlier work highlights the benefits of resolving long-distance reorderings as a pre-processing step to standard phrase-based models. However, the potential performance improvement of source reordering and its impact on the components of the subsequent translation model remain unexplored. In this paper we study both aspects of source reordering. We set up idealized source reordering (oracle) models with/without syntax and present our own syntax-driven model of source reordering. The latter is a statistical model of inversion transduction grammar (ITG)-like tree transductions manipulating a syntactic parse and working with novel conditional reordering parameters. Having set up the models, we report translation experiments showing significant improvement on three language pairs, and contribute an extensive analysis of the impact of source reordering (both oracle and model) on the translation model regarding the quality of its input, phrase-table, and output. Our experiments show that oracle source reordering has untapped potential in improving translation system output. Besides solving difficult reorderings, we find that source reordering creates more monotone parallel training data at the back-end, leading to significantly larger phrase tables with higher coverage of phrase types in unseen data. Unfortunately, this nice property does not carry over to tree-constrained source reordering. Our analysis shows that, from the string-level perspective, tree-constrained reordering might selectively permute word order, leading to larger phrase tables but without increase in phrase coverage in unseen data.

Co-text of use of forty English nominal premodifiers

This paper examines the co-text of use of the singular and plural variants of 40 nouns used as modifiers in compounds with two lexical bases on the basis of over 6,000 compounds collected from a general corpus of English. The data shows that, for the lexemes considered, plural premodification contributes significantly to compound formation, although singular premodification is favoured, and that both groups of compounds occur in similar lexical, semantic and syntactic environments (e.g. the same types of semantic categories are represented in the heads of both groups; the same combinations of typographic, semantic and syntactic features signal the presence of micro semantic-syntactic units within larger nominal units). However, it appears that features marking the distinctiveness of the non-head material in the compounds occur more frequently, especially in combinations, when plural premodification is instantiated. This suggests that plural premodification may be favoured by the co-presence of multiple co-textual conditions, but also that the occurrence of unithood features — which mark the distinctiveness of the non-head material or of the larger phrases containing the compounds — may also be favoured by specific lexemes.

Pied-piping in Relative Clauses: Syntax and Compositional Semantics using Synchronous Tree Adjoining Grammar

In relative clauses, the wh relative pronoun can be embedded in a larger phrase, as in “a boy [whose brother] Mary hit” and “a boy [whose brother’s friend] Mary hit”. In such examples, we say that the larger phrase containing the wh-word has pied-piped along with the wh-word. In this paper, using a similar syntactic analysis for wh pied-piping as in Han (A talk presented at TAG+6, Venice, Italy, www.sfu.ca/∼chunghye/papers/tag6-rc-slides.pdf, 2002) and further developed in Kallmeyer and Scheffler (Proceedings of TAG+7, Vancouver, Canada, pp. 32–39, 2004), I propose a compositional semantics for relative clauses of the sort illustrated above using Synchronous Tree Adjoining Grammar, a pairing of Tree Adjoining Grammars. It will be shown that (i) the elementary tree representing the logical form of a wh relative pronoun provides a generalized quantifier, and (ii) the semantic composition of the pied-piped material and the wh-word is achieved through adjoining the elementary tree representing the logical form of the pied-piped material to the elementary tree representing the logical form of the wh-word in the semantics.

Pre-editing and Recursive-Phrase Composites for a Better English-to-Arabic Machine Translation

This research presents an approach for an English-to-Arabic Machine Translation System based on Building correct grammar and phrase structures first and then automatically deriving Translation Rules for phrase translation. For every English phrase, the grammar is first analysed and then a corresponding Arabic translation is given which would be used by the machine learning system to produce a translation rule with the help of a dictionary and the user. These same derived rules can partially be used for other phrase sequences especially in the case of a phrase consisting of a number of smaller phrases and thus implemeting the idea of recusive phrase strucutres. The approach was implemented and tested on simple cases and the results are given which indicate that this approach is successful for small to medium phrases. Our approach is an enhancement on existing phrase translation techniques because it analyses the source language grammar first, then builds a syntactic structure before proceeding with the machine learning process of learning the translation rules. Our approach is enhancement on existing phrase based translations in two directions: the grammar editing before the translation rules and the derived translation rules can be complete for complete phrases or are rules for translatioing smaller phrases which are subsets or larger phrases. The approach has improved the spped and correctness of phrase translations.

Influence of prosodic factors on segment articulations and acoustics in English

This study investigated effects of three prosodic factors—prosodic boundary, lexical stress, and accent—on articulatory and acoustic realizations of two CV syllables, /nE/ and /tE/. These syllables occurred at the beginning of trisyllabic English nonwords; their position in the larger phrase (prosodic boundary conditions), and whether they were lexically stressed and/or accented (prominence conditions) were varied. Articulatory measurements included linguopalatal contact (by electropalatography) for both C and V, stop consonant seal duration, and C-to-V contact difference; acoustic measurements include nasal duration and energy for /n/; VOT, burst energy and spectral center of gravity for /t/; and F1, vowel duration and vowel amplitude for /E/. We tested whether domain-initial strengthening occurs in the C and/or the V segments independently of stress or accent conditions. We found that the effects of position and of stress/accent can be distinguished in the production and the acoustics of these syllables. One domain-initial effect (greater consonant contact domain-initially) was complementary to one stress/accent effect (greater vowel opening with stress/accent); in other cases the effects overlapped (greater vowel energy and tendency to longer consonant both domain-initially and with stress/accent); in one case they conflicted (less consonant energy domain-initially, more consonant energy with stress/accent).

English word recognition and word integration skills of native Arabic- and Japanese-speaking learners of English as a second language

This study investigated the effects of first language word-level reading skills on the development of English as a second language (ESL) word-level reading skills. A crosslinguistic analysis indicates that native Arabic and Japanese speakers are likely to encounter different types of ESL word-level reading difficulties. Specifically, native Arab speakers are likely to exhibit difficulties with prelexical ESL word recognition processes, whereas native Japanese speakers are likely to exhibit difficulties with on-line ESL word integration processes that integrate words into phrase/clause structures for comprehension. Results from a lexical decision task showed that a group of Japanese ESL learners had significantly faster and more accurate word recognition skills compared to a proficiency-matched Arab ESL group. In contrast, both groups read words within sentences in a sentence reading task at the same speed, though the Arab ESL group was significantly more accurate in integrating words into larger phrase and clause units and comprehending them than the Japanese ESL group. These results indicate that Arab and Japanese ESL students have different word-level reading difficulties, implicating different learning needs and pedagogical interventions for developing ESL reading proficiency.

A Review of L1 and L2/ESL Word Integration Skills and the Nature of L2/ESL Word Integration Development Involved in Lower‐Level Text Processing

This article examines the nature and development of fluent L2/ESL word integration skills involved in lower‐level text processing. Four theoretical approaches to word integration and sentence processing in the L1 and L2/ESL literature are discussed in conjunction with a review of the relevant research. The research indicates that L1 and fluent L2/ESL speakers utilize similar processing procedures to integrate words into larger phrase and sentence structures. The research also indicates that the development of fluent and accurate L2/ESL word integration skills depends to a substantial degree on the development of L2/ESL syntactic structure–building skills.

Linguistic complexity: locality of syntactic dependencies

This paper proposes a new theory of the relationship between the sentence processing mechanism and the available computational resources. This theory – the Syntactic Prediction Locality Theory (SPLT) – has two components: an integration cost component and a component for the memory cost associated with keeping track of obligatory syntactic requirements. Memory cost is hypothesized to be quantified in terms of the number of syntactic categories that are necessary to complete the current input string as a grammatical sentence. Furthermore, in accordance with results from the working memory literature both memory cost and integration cost are hypothesized to be heavily influenced by locality (1) the longer a predicted category must be kept in memory before the prediction is satisfied, the greater is the cost for maintaining that prediction; and (2) the greater the distance between an incoming word and the most local head or dependent to which it attaches, the greater the integration cost. The SPLT is shown to explain a wide range of processing complexity phenomena not previously accounted for under a single theory, including (1) the lower complexity of subject-extracted relative clauses compared to object-extracted relative clauses, (2) numerous processing overload effects across languages, including the unacceptability of multiply center-embedded structures, (3) the lower complexity of cross-serial dependencies relative to center-embedded dependencies, (4) heaviness effects, such that sentences are easier to understand when larger phrases are placed later and (5) numerous ambiguity effects, such as those which have been argued to be evidence for the Active Filler Hypothesis.

On Odd Coordinations in German

This paper is concerned with German coordinations which are ‘odd’ in that und ‘and’ superficially does not connect constituents of like categories. The focus is on odd coordinations in which und has a full non-finite verb phrase to its immediate right but only a verb phrase fragment to its immediate left. In the analysis of Heycock and Kroch (1994), such ‘verbal’ odd coordinations arise by asymmetric extraction from a first verb phrases coordinate. It is shown here that this analysis misses a robust empirical generalization: In verbal odd coordinations, the string preceding und must always form a grammatical sentence in isolation. It is argued that this generalization can be derived from the Coordinate Structure Constraint, which bans asymmetric extraction. In the spirit of Wilder (1994), it is furthermore argued that grammatical verbal odd coordinations derive from coordinations of larger phrases which are reduced by Gapping. It is shown that this leads to a unified analysis of verbal odd coordinations and analogous ‘nominal’ odd coordinations, in which und appears between a full noun phrase and a noun phrase fragment. Further issues addressed are operator scope and the availability of Left Deletion (Right Node Raising) in odd coordinations.

Quels compléments de nom peut-on extraire en français ?

Daniele Godard & Ivan A. Sag : Which Complements of a Noun can one Cliticize or Relativize in French ? It is well-known that certain, but not all complements of a noun can be extracted (cliticized, relativized or turned into a question) in French. We examine a variety of facts which support the following generalization : only the first argument on a noun's argument list can be extracted (un livre dont j'ai aimé la fin /j'en ai aimé la fin), or can function as a wh-complement (included in a larger phrase in pied-piping constructions, as in un livre à la fin duquel je ne me suis pas intéressé). A second observation is that an element extracted from an NP must function as the complement of the highest noun (the head) in that phrase. By contrast, wh-expressions may be more deeply embedded within an NP. Casting our analysis in the HPSG framework, we propose two simple constraints on the lexical representation of (non-predicative) nouns. These constraints, which make reference to non-local features, interact with independently motivated aspects of the HPSG treatment of unbounded dependency constructions (e.g. relative and interrogative clauses) to predict the surprisingly complex domain of facts we survey.

Capsules

Well organized large systems tend to consist of a large number of small pieces of code each of which captures a single semantic unit. These pieces of code are strung together to form larger semantic phrases, which are in turn components of even larger phrases. The smallest semantic units in a polynomial manipulation system might be the routines that add and multiply the coefficients of the polynomials. These routines are combined (used as subroutines) to form the routines that add and multiply polynomials, which are components in the factoring and greatest common divisor routines. When a system is built in a top down manner, the larger phrases are formed first and are used to define the semantic components of the smaller phrases. Bottom up software design begins with the small phrases and generates the large phrases. In practice a combination of these two approaches is often used. The manner in which the routines are initially connected is usually simple, but in time the addition of new capabilities and features, and the necessities of performance enhancement generally cause the dependency structure to become quite complex.

DIAGRAM

An explanatory overview is given of DIAGRAM, a large and complex grammar used in an artificial intelligence system for interpreting English dialogue. DIAGRAM is an augmented phrase-structure grammar with rule procedures that allow phrases to inherit attributes from their constituents and to acquire attributes from the larger phrases in which they themselves are constituents. These attributes are used to set context-sensitive constraints on the acceptance of an analysis. Constraints can be imposed by conditions on dominance as well as by conditions on constituency. Rule procedures can also assign scores to an analysis to rate it as probable or unlikely. Less likely analyses can be ignored by the procedures that interpret the utterance. For every expression it analyzes, DIAGRAM provides an annotated description of the structure. The annotations supply important information for other parts of the system that interpret the expression in the context of a dialogue. Major design decisions are explained and illustrated. Some contrasts with transformational grammars are pointed out and problems that motivate a plan to use metarules in the future are discussed. (Metarules derive new rules from a set of base rules to achieve the kind of generality previously captured by transformational grammars but without having to perform transformations on syntactic analyses.)