Large-scale Oil Palm Plantations Research Articles

Policy advocation: the potential role of independent smallholding oil palm plantation in biodiversity conservation

Despite the frequent reports of large-scale oil palm plantations’ lack of attention to biodiversity conservation, there is a paucity of reporting on smallholding plantation contributions in this regard. Yet, vegetation heterogeneity supports richer biodiversity, and this is a characteristic of independent smallholdings. This paper discusses the potential role of independent smallholding oil palm plantations in biodiversity conservation with respect to butterfly and earthworms. Data were collected on four large-scale and four smallholding plantations in the Districts of Kampar, Pelalawan, Kuantan, Singingi and Siak of Riau Province, using a time-survey method for butterflies and hand-sorting method for earthworms. The research also used direct interview with oil palm owners and community members to assess the environmental value of independent smallholdings. Results showed that independent smallholdings were considered to be ecologically-friendly, where most have been shown to support higher species richness of butterfly and higher density of earthworms, than large-scale plantations, due to the irregular maintenance practices, as well as proximity to secondary forest and rubber plantations. It can be concluded that the informed management of independent smallholding oil palm plantations could effectively support biodiversity conservation.

Discriminating between large-scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings on tropical peatlands using vegetation indices and supervised classification of LANDSAT-8

ABSTRACTTropical peat swamp forest is rapidly being converted into industrial-scale oil palm agriculture across South-east Asia. This has global and local environmental implications including habitat loss and carbon release. Monitoring oil palm expansion or land-use/land-cover on peatlands is feasible using remote sensing technology, however, there are few examples of assessments of different oil palm management systems. Three peatland land cover types were assessed and mapped using vegetation indices and supervised classifications of Landsat-8 level-2 imagery: peat swamp forest, large-scale oil palm plantation and smallholding. Firstly, we calculated and compared differences in vegetation indices (NDVI, EVI and SAVI) values between each of the land covers. Next, we mapped land cover using three classification methods – Support Vector Machine, Random Trees and Maximum Likelihood – with a single date and multi-temporal datasets. These were applied to the vegetation indices and also a three band Landsat image using band 2 (blue band), band 4 (red band) and band 5 (near-infrared band) i.e. false colour composite. The vegetation index assessment found significant differences in the NDVI, EVI and SAVI between peat swamp forest, large-scale plantation and smallholding. The NDVI in peat swamp forest was highest. In contrast, the EVI and SAVI in the peat swamp forest were the lowest. While the NDVI, EVI and SAVI in the large-scale plantations were greater than the smallholdings. Irrespective of landscape type, there were strong positive correlations between NDVI and EVI, NDVI and SAVI, and EVI and SAVI. For the land cover mapping, the best classifier was Random Trees with the multi-temporal Landsat bands 543 datasets with a mapping accuracy of 95.54% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.933. This study demonstrated that both vegetation indices and land cover mapping can provide planners and decision-makers with tools to monitor natural and production landscapes, managed under different systems in the tropics.

What causes deforestation in Indonesia?

We investigate the causes of deforestation in Indonesia, a country with one of the highest rates of primary natural forest loss in the tropics, annually between 2001 and 2016. We use high spatial resolution imagery made available on Google Earth to characterize the land cover types following a random selection of deforestation events, drawn from the Global Forest Change dataset. Notorious in the region, large-scale oil palm and timber plantations together contributed more than two-fifths of nationwide deforestation over our study period, with a peak in late aughts followed by a notable decline up to 2016. Conversion of forests to grasslands, which comprised an average of one-fifth of national deforestation, rose sharply in dominance in years following periods of considerable fire activity, particularly in 2016. Small-scale agriculture and small-scale plantations also contributed one-fifth of nationwide forest loss and were the dominant drivers of loss outside the major islands of Indonesia. Although relatively small contributors to total deforestation, logging roads were responsible for a declining share of deforestation, and mining activities were responsible for an increasing share, over the study period. Direct drivers of deforestation in Indonesia are thus spatially and temporally dynamic, suggesting the need for forest conservation policy responses tailored at the subnational level, and new methods for monitoring the causes of deforestation over time.

Modal Sosial Bentukan Dalam Penyelesaian Konflik di Bangka Belitung

Three potential conflicts that need to be anticipated in the reality of the life of the Bangka Belitung community in the future. The results of qualitative research through conflict mapping in seven districts / cities showed the potential for economic conflict in fighting for tin resources, agrarian conflicts with development dimensions related to land expansion for large-scale oil palm plantations, and inter-village and interethnic youth conflicts became the dominant issue. The mechanism of the savety valve as a damper of potential recurring conflicts must be institutionalized through functional and sustainable formalized social capital.

The effect of oil palm agricultural expansion on group size of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in Peninsular Malaysia

Large-scale expansion of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) monocultures across Southeast Asia are creating ecosystems with homogenous habitats with low species diversity. However, heterogeneity varies between oil palm smallholdings and large-scale plantations, with greater habitat heterogeneity found on smallholdings. To date, there has been a paucity of field research on primate species, particularly macaques in oil palm plantations. In this study, we investigate the group size of long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) in four habitat types: unlogged forest, logged forest, large-scale oil palm plantations, and smallholdings. Field censuses were conducted in 2015 and 2016 to determine the group size of M. fascicularis in large-scale oil palm plantations and oil palm smallholdings. These data from oil palm plantations were compared to surveys conducted on a logged lowland forest reserve and a previous study in an unlogged lowland forest. We found that group size of M. fascicularis in large-scale plantations was lower compared to smallholdings, logged forest and unlogged forest. The chi-square test showed that the age class (juvenile or adult) of M. fascicularis was associated with farming systems. The paper concludes that the expansion of large-scale oil palm monocultures should be limited because of its adverse impacts on biodiversity including common species such as M. fascicularis.

Assessment of ALOS-2 PALSAR-2L-band and Sentinel-1 C-band SAR backscatter for discriminating between large-scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings on tropical peatlands

Oil palm agriculture is rapidly expanding across the tropics, particularly on peatlands to meet increasing global demand for palm oil based products. Oil palm production systems can be divided into two broad categories of management system: large-scale monoculture plantations and smallholdings. Both categories are separated by large differences in environmental and social impacts. These oil palm production systems are often characterized by different agricultural practices and vegetation characteristics and therefore land cover. To date, there are no examples of radar remote sensing studies in oil palm production landscapes assessing differences between large-scale plantations and smallholdings. Here, we investigate whether these management systems have distinct radar signatures that can be identified through backscattering intensity using ALOS (Synthetic Aperture Radar) – PALSAR (Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar) L-band and Sentinel-1 C-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR). SAR has been shown to be superior to other remote sensing sensors in the tropics for monitoring oil palm expansion due to its all-weather capabilities. In this study we measured backscattered intensity of 196 plots planted with oil palm that were established on peatland in Peninsular Malaysia. Our results indicated that backscattered intensity was significantly influenced by the management systems. We found that canopy and soil moisture was greater in smallholdings compared to large-scale plantations. With the exception of HV polarization method, season had significant effect on backscattered intensity. Irrespective of management systems, canopy and soil moisture was greater in wet months compared to dry months. Our findings suggest that ALOS-2-PALSAR-2L-band and Sentinel-1 C-band have great potential to discriminate oil palm production landscapes managed under different management systems. Further investigation is needed to determine whether the current findings are consistent for oil palm in mineral soils.

Analyses of Land Cover Change Trajectories Leading to Tropical Forest Loss: Illustrated for the West Kutai and Mahakam Ulu Districts, East Kalimantan, Indonesia

In Indonesia, land cover change for agriculture and mining is threatening tropical forests, biodiversity and ecosystem services. However, land cover change is highly dynamic and complex and varies over time and space. In this study, we combined Landsat-based land cover (change) mapping, pixel-to-pixel cross tabulations and expert knowledge to analyze land cover change and forest loss in the West Kutai and Mahakam Ulu districts in East Kalimantan from 1990–2009. We found that about one-third of the study area changed in 1990–2009 and that the different types of land cover changes in the study area increased and involved more diverse and characteristic trajectories in 2000–2009, compared to 1990–2000. Degradation to more open forest types was dominant, and forest was mostly lost due to trajectories that involved deforestation to grasslands and shrubs (~17%), and to a lesser extent due to trajectories from forest to mining and agriculture (11%). Trajectories from forest to small-scale mixed cropland and smallholder rubber occurred more frequently than trajectories to large-scale oil palm or pulpwood plantations; however, the latter increased over time. About 11% of total land cover change involved multiple-step trajectories and thus “intermediate” land cover types. The combined trajectory analysis in this paper thus contributes to a more comprehensive analysis of land cover change and the drivers of forest loss, which is essential to improve future land cover projections and to support spatial planning.

Are peatland farming systems sustainable? Case study on assessing existing farming systems in the peatland of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia

Economically, peatland plays an important role since they can be reclaimed for agriculture. Shallow peat (<100 cm) can be used to grow food crops including vegetables. Peatland has also become attractive for development of large-scale oil palm and rubber plantations. However, peatland has a number of constraints in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission, especially CO2 emissions in the degraded peatland. These arise from decomposition of peat. Common sense suggests three alternatives to manage GHG emissions from degraded peatland: conservation and restoration, natural recovery, and agricultural use. In this context, the challenge is to utilize degraded tropical peatland for agriculture while avoiding the negative impacts, and ensuring its environmental sustainability. This research attempts to contribute toward developing better management plans. Results of this study show that rice farming has highest sustainable score in degraded peatland. Rice farming secured a 52.14% sustainability score, while oil palm and rubber farming exhibited 47.55 and 47.67% sustainable scores, respectively. Therefore, rice farming can be considered as the first alternative for development of degraded peatland. Improved oil palm and rubber farming systems may also be subsequently considered if their sustainability can be improved.

Logged peat swamp forest supports greater macrofungal biodiversity than large-scale oil palm plantations and smallholdings.

Intensive land expansion of commercial oil palm agricultural lands results in reducing the size of peat swamp forests, particularly in Southeast Asia. The effect of this land conversion on macrofungal biodiversity is, however, understudied. We quantified macrofungal biodiversity by identifying mushroom sporocarps throughout four different habitats; logged peat swamp forest, large‐scale oil palm plantation, monoculture, and polyculture smallholdings. We recorded a total of 757 clusters of macrofungi belonging to 127 morphospecies and found that substrates for growing macrofungi were abundant in peat swamp forest; hence, morphospecies richness and macrofungal clusters were significantly greater in logged peat swamp forest than converted oil palm agriculture lands. Environmental factors that influence macrofungi in logged peat swamp forests such as air temperature, humidity, wind speed, soil pH, and soil moisture were different from those in oil palm plantations and smallholdings. We conclude that peat swamp forests are irreplaceable with respect to macrofungal biodiversity. They host much greater macrofungal biodiversity than any of the oil palm agricultural lands. It is imperative that further expansion of oil palm plantation into remaining peat swamp forests should be prohibited in palm oil producing countries. These results imply that macrofungal distribution reflects changes in microclimate between habitats and reduced macrofungal biodiversity may adversely affect decomposition in human‐modified landscapes.

Soil nitrogen oxide fluxes from lowland forests converted to smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations in Sumatra, Indonesia

Abstract. Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) plantations cover large areas of former rainforest in Sumatra, Indonesia, supplying the global demand for these crops. Although forest conversion is known to influence soil nitrous oxide (N2O) and nitric oxide (NO) fluxes, measurements from oil palm and rubber plantations are scarce (for N2O) or nonexistent (for NO). Our study aimed to (1) quantify changes in soil–atmosphere fluxes of N oxides with forest conversion to rubber and oil palm plantations and (2) determine their controlling factors. In Jambi, Sumatra, we selected two landscapes that mainly differed in texture but were both on heavily weathered soils: loam and clay Acrisol soils. Within each landscape, we investigated lowland forests, rubber trees interspersed in secondary forest (termed as jungle rubber), both as reference land uses and smallholder rubber and oil palm plantations as converted land uses. In the loam Acrisol landscape, we conducted a follow-on study in a large-scale oil palm plantation (called PTPN VI) for comparison of soil N2O fluxes with smallholder oil palm plantations. Land-use conversion to smallholder plantations had no effect on soil N-oxide fluxes (P = 0. 58 to 0.76) due to the generally low soil N availability in the reference land uses that further decreased with land-use conversion. Soil N2O fluxes from the large-scale oil palm plantation did not differ with those from smallholder plantations (P = 0. 15). Over 1-year measurements, the temporal patterns of soil N-oxide fluxes were influenced by soil mineral N and water contents. Across landscapes, annual soil N2O emissions were controlled by gross nitrification and sand content, which also suggest the influence of soil N and water availability. Soil N2O fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were 7 ± 2 to 14 ± 7 (reference land uses), 6 ± 3 to 9 ± 2 (rubber), 12 ± 3 to 12 ± 6 (smallholder oil palm) and 42 ± 24 (large-scale oil palm). Soil NO fluxes (µg N m−2 h−1) were −0.6 ± 0.7 to 5.7 ± 5.8 (reference land uses), −1.2 ± 0.5 to −1.0 ± 0.2 (rubber) and −0.2 ± 1.2 to 0.7 ± 0.7 (smallholder oil palm). To improve the estimate of soil N-oxide fluxes from oil palm plantations in this region, studies should focus on large-scale plantations (which usually have 2 to 4 times higher N fertilization rates than smallholders) with frequent measurements following fertilizer application.

Expansion of Oil Palm Plantations and Forest Cover Changes in Bungo and Merangin Districts, Jambi Province, Indonesia

It is often cited that large scale oil palm plantation were responsible for forest cover changes in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Objective of the research was to identify whether oil palm concessions were the direct cause of intact forest cover changes in study area. The study areas are situated at Jambi Province, Indonesia and are experiencing rapid expansion of oil palm plantation. We used Landsat temporal images from year 1988, 1990, 2000, 2007, and 2013 to detect forest cover change. We also made use Carnegie Landsat Analysis System–Lite (CLASlite) fractional cover module to differentiate undisturbed (intact), disturbed (logged) forest and also oil palm growing stages on Landsat images. Our study showed that, there were only 8% of oil palm plantation development occurred by direct clearing of intact forest in the study area in the last 25 years. Oil palm concessions in the last 25 years were mostly developed on logged forest, agroforests, and shrub lands.

Promoting landscape heterogeneity to improve the biodiversity benefits of certified palm oil production: Evidence from Peninsular Malaysia

The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) is responsible for the certification of palm oil producers that comply with sustainability standards. However, it is not known whether RSPO-certified plantations are effective in maintaining biodiversity. Focusing on Peninsular Malaysia, we show that both RSPO-certified plantations and uncertified large-scale plantations are characterized by very low levels of landscape heterogeneity. By contrast, heterogeneity measures were many times higher in palm oil producing smallholdings, despite their lack of RSPO certification. The low heterogeneity of large-scale oil palm plantations, including those certified by the RSPO, is likely to severely limit their value for biodiversity conservation. Uncertified smallholdings, in contrast, are much more heterogeneous and therefore hold substantially greater promise for the integration of palm oil production and biodiversity conservation than large-scale plantations. With oil palm agriculture further expanding, certification schemes should mandate producers to improve biodiversity conservation through landscape management that promotes greater landscape heterogeneity.

CO2lonialism and the “Unintended Consequences” of Commoditizing Climate Change: Geographies of Hope Amid a Sea of Oil Palms in the Northwest Ecuadorian Pacific Region

Reduction of greenhouse gases as prescribed by the Kyoto Protocol encourages substituting fossil fuels with biofuels. Ecuador's engagement with such climate change policy frameworks and subsequent biofuel production plans have led to drastic landscape transformation. Since the implementation of the first large-scale oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) plantation in the Canton of San Lorenzo, Esmeraldas province in 1998, palm monoculture has replaced 22, 242 ha of Ecuador's coastal Chocó rainforest. The recent and rapid expansion of oil palm plantations has serious and detrimental socio-ecological repercussions for the local Afro-Ecuadorian and indigenous communities. This article highlights both the agro-ecological and cultural practices and the inter-ethnic networks through which these communities construct and sustain “geographies of hope” amid landscapes characterized by fallen forests, poisoned rivers, social conflicts, and a sea of oil palms. Drawing on the theoretical linkages between climate change, colonialism, and capitalism, this study investigates San Lorenzo as an agricultural frontier where “CO2lonialism” is articulated through biofuel (oil palm) production. Expounding on the ecological debt of the Global North to the Global South, this article critically examines actions and discourses that bulldoze rainforests, livelihoods, and constructive discussions regarding the global warning of global warming.

A Case Study on the Effects of Disturbance and Conversion of Tropical Lowland Rain Forest on the Non-Volant Small Mammals in North Borneo: Management Implications

The conversion and loss of primary rainforest in Southeast Asia is presumed to affect many animal assemblages in terms of their diversity and species composition. We studied the responses of non-volant small mammals to forest loss and degradation caused by logging and the establishment of large-scale oil palm plantations located in the north-eastern part of Borneo in Southeast Asia. We found that habitat types (forest versus plantation) were important determinant of species occurrences and assemblage compositions. However, within forest habitats irrespective of whether logged or unlogged, similarities in assemblage compositions of sites close to each other underline the importance of geographic distance in shaping small mammal assemblages. In terms of conservation management, it is imperative to incorporate the size and overall surrounding environment of a forest into forest management concepts, and although not equivalent to areas of primary forest, old regenerating secondary forest needs to be considered as an important component for the preservation of small mammal species diversity. In contrast, oil palm plantations are clearly of little or no importance for the conservation of the non-volant small mammal fauna and this habitat may also act as an effective barrier to the dispersal of the small mammals.

Will Forests Remain in the Face of Oil Palm Expansion? Simulating Change in Malinau, Indonesia

The severe tensions between conservation and development are illustrated by events in Malinau Dstrict (Kalimantan, Indonesia). Conservationists decry proposed plans for logging and conversion of pristine tropical forest to oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). Although the local government is willing to declare the district a “conservation district,” at the same time, it shows interest in oil palm conversion. This article explores the impact of the potential conversion of 500 000 ha of forest to oil palm on forest cover, inmigration, and the local economy in Malinau. The simulation model was developed using STELLA® software, and relies on a combination of empirical data, data from the literature, and stakeholder perceptions. If a company were to clear the forest for timber without planting oil palm (as commonly happens), poverty levels are likely to rise rather than decline over the long term. If large-scale oil palm plantations were to be established, they could yield significant benefits to local authorities. However, such development would induce massive employment-driven migration, with wide-ranging consequences for the current inhabitants of the region. By visualizing and quantifying these trade-offs between conservation and development, the model stimulates debate and information exchange among conservationists, development actors, and district authorities so that well-informed choices can be made.

POTENSI DAN PERMASALAHAN PENGEMBANGAN PERKEBUNAN KELAPA SAWIT SKALA BESAR DI KALIMANTAN TIMUR

East Kalimantan is one of wealthiest and widest provinces in Indonesia having strategic position, either geographically or economically. It is characterized by prosperous natural resources such as vast deposit of mining and energy, oceanic and forest resources, and so forth. As a well-off province, good and sound management is truly required to improve public prosperity as well as to guard ecological quality. One of the most probable potency is palm oil plantation. The availability of bountiful land in Kalimantan makes the efforts of building large-scale palm oil plantation more reliable. However, discourse on the operation of the one-million-hectare-palm-oil-plantation is awfully dilemmatic. There is no symmetric concordance between ‘pros' and ‘cons' so far. The government policy on promoting plantation sector, therefore, is still blurred. Based on such situation, this paper tries to explore and evaluate the government plan to develop large-scale oil palm plantation in East Kalimantan province, especially from the perspective of public policy.