Large-scale Dairy Farms Research Articles

Spatial and Temporal Evolution of Dairy Farming Coordination between Economy and Ecology in China

This paper focuses on the theme of the sustainable dairy industry and explores the coordination between the economy and ecology in dairy farming. Specifically, we constructed a composite dairy economy and ecology (DEE) system to evaluate the status of dairy farming. Based on the panel data of the nine primary milk producing provinces in China from 2003 to 2018, we estimated DEE changes with the coupling coordination degree model from perception of time. We then applied spatial autocorrelation model to analyze spatial heterogeneity. The results show that: (1) Seven of the nine provinces had experienced the three-stage process of economic lag–ecological lag–economic lag. Only Xinjiang and Ningxia have experienced the first two stages and are currently going through the economic lag status. (2) The coupling degree of DEE increased rapidly and has fluctuated around 0.5 since 2009. Furthermore, the degree of coordination of DEE went up continuously, and there was obvious regional differentiation. (3) Reduction of large-scale dairy farms is conducive to coordination between the dairy economy and ecology. (4) The positive spatial spillover effect on the coordination of DEE was not temporally steady. Our findings provide relevant evidence for improving the relationship between the economy and ecology for the sustainability of the dairy industry.

Technical staffs’ knowledge and attitudes survey regarding tail docking on dairy farms of Turkey

The study examined the knowledge, beliefs, and attitudinal drivers of technical staff and breeders regarding tail docking and the incidence of docking on large-scale dairy farms (≥100 cattle) in Turkey. Survey responses were analyzed using the Mann?Whitney U test to determine attitudinal differences between respondents who self-reported docking tails or not docking their cattle. Using face-toface interviews of 210 respondents at 206 Turkish dairy farms was carried out. Tail docking procedures were practiced on 27.1% of the surveyed farms. At the time of the tail docking, 57.9% of cattle were less than 12 months of age. The most frequent tail docking method was amputation by rubber ring constriction (61.4%), with the following most common method being a surgical one (33.3%). The most preferred location for the tail docking was between the sixth and seventh coccygeal vertebrae (29.8%), followed by level with midudder (26.3%). The most common reasons given by respondents for docking tails were to increase hygiene (64.8%), the comfort of the workers (62.4%), and reduce the risk of mastitis (60.9%). The survey results of the present study indicated that, without clear regulations or laws, the tail docking of dairy cattle varies substantially with personal preference rather than scientific justification in Turkey. Technical staff and breeders should be educated and been aware of humane alternative methods (switch trimming) for tail docking in dairy cattle, and societal pressure and public perceptions considered about tail docking on Turkish dairy farms.

Employee Management and Animal Care: A Comparative Ethnography of Two Large-Scale Dairy Farms in China

Simple SummaryChina’s dairy industry is growing and restructuring to favor large-scale dairy farms. The lead author lived on two large-scale dairy farms in China and conducted immersive fieldwork where she participated in daily cattle care alongside the workers, conducted interviews with workers, and collected relevant documents. We found that employee management critically shaped animal care on both farms. Workers reported improvements to animal care on both farms, attributing these to improved employee management practices. Our findings suggest that cattle care may be improved through employee management practices such as fostering a positive organization culture, ensuring better working conditions, and incentivizing farm workers.Farm management can directly and indirectly affect animal care. We explored how farm management affected animal care on two large dairy farms in China (anonymized as Farm A and Farm B). We used a mini-ethnographic case study design whereby the first author lived for 38 days on Farm A and 23 days on Farm B. She conducted participant observation and ethnographic interviews with farm staff positions within five departments in Farm A and six departments in Farm B. In addition, she conducted 13 semi-structured interviews (seven on Farm A; six on Farm B). We used template analysis to generate key themes. On both farms, workers believed that animal care practices had improved over time, due to three key employee management factors: 1) organizational culture, 2) competency of worker and management, and 3) an effective incentive system. Our results suggest that animal care may be improved in this context by: 1) promoting a culture in which workers have ‘grit’ and are eager to learn, 2) ensuring basic worker wellbeing, and 3) using animal care outcomes as performance indicators linked to pay.

A 1-Year Investigation of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae Isolated from Bovine Mastitis at a Large-Scale Dairy Farm in Japan.

In a large-scale dairy farm, it is important to take countermeasure of prevention against mastitis of dairy cows, and it is especially important to establish hygiene and risk management to prevent the emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. In this study, we have performed bacteriological testing of clinical and subclinical mastitis and investigation of antimicrobial resistance bacteria in a large-scale farm for 1 year. The bacteria isolated most frequently from 1,549 samples of 952 cow, including cows with recurring mastitis were Staphylococcus non-aureus (SNA) (27.6%), followed by Escherichia coli (18.9%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (12.3%). Although Staphylococcus aureus was isolated at 7.7% from milk sample, no methicillin-resistant S. aureus was found. The incidence of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli was 1.4% and ESBL-producing K. pneumoniae was 1.4% of all samples, even though third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins were not used for antimicrobial treatment of mastitis in this farm. Although these genotypes of ESBL-producing E. coli and K. pneumoniae were mainly composed of CTX-M-15 and TEM-1 and CTX-M-2 and TEM-116, respectively, there was no spread and persist of predominant clonal type. Appropriate farm management, such as segregation and culling of infected animals and monitors of trends in antimicrobial resistance among mastitis pathogens, may have contributed these results.

Review: Challenges and prospects for milk production in China after the 2008 milk scandal

The primary objectives of this review were to characterize the challenges faced by China’s milk industry after the milk scandal of 2008 and to propose prospects for the future. This review is supported by data and information from the literature, various statistical yearbooks and databases, administration documents, news reports, and the authors’ own investigations. After the milk scandal and the resulting decline in the number of dairy cows in China, more recently annual milk production has come to the end of a rapid growth period. Importing large quantities of dairy products, especially milk powder, has affected domestic milk production. The high cost of milk production in China is the key reason for the lack of market competitiveness for milk within the country. Dairy farms are facing stricter environmental protection requirements, which have become an important economic constraint for future dairy farming development. In the transition from small-scale to large-scale (100 or more cows per farm) dairy farms in China, more 10,000-cow farms have emerged, which has triggered a debate about the size of dairy farms. Although China’s milk production is facing some challenges, the continuous improvement of consumers’ income, the formation of milk drinking habits, and governmental support have developed a large market potential for domestically produced dairy products and milk production. Improving market competitiveness while ensuring economic and environmental sustainability are key to the future prospects for China’s milk industry. The characterization and discussion of the past, current, and potential dairy industry in China is intended to enhance understanding for dairy farmers, dairy enterprises, and the government to positively and significantly adjust the strategies for the dairy industry. Future research needs to address the effects of different organizational forms of dairy enterprises and dairy farmers on milk production in China.

A field study using different technologies to detect calving at a large-scale hungarian dairy farm.

The objective of this study was to investigate three different calving detection systems in order to assess and compare their efficiency. The study was conducted at a large-scale dairy farm involving 54 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows and heifers. Animals were fitted with multiple devices: a rumination measuring device (Ruminact® (RA)), an intravaginal thermometer (Vel'Phone® (VP)) and a tail movement sensor (Moocall® (MC)) 5 to 7days before expected calving and were removed after parturition. RA detects rumination time (RT) and calculates it in 2-hr intervals. VP detects a decrease in vaginal temperature that might indicate calving within 48hr and the drop in temperature resulting from the expulsion of the device at calving (EXP message). MC detected increased tail movements and if they persisted for one hour, 1HA message was sent. If they continued during the subsequent hour, then 2HA message was sent. Messages sent by MC within 4hr before calving (C4) were selected retrospectively as true positives for the prediction of calving, using the significant changes in RT as a baseline. All other messages were categorized as false positive. The mean value of RT decreased in a non-significant manner between interval -22 and -4 before calving. Significant decrease of RT was detectable between the two intervals of -4 and -2 before calving (24.7±18.6min/2hr and 14.0±13.0min/2hr, respectively). There was no significant difference between RT of primiparous and multiparous animals. EXP messages were accurate (positive predictive value 100%) indicators of the onset of calving. We received on average 12.7±15.2 messages/animal (11.0±10.1 and 16.6±22.2 for cows and heifers, respectively). Positive predictive value was 12.6%. The number of false-positive messages was significantly higher in heifers. All three automatic systems could be used in a large-scale farm environment.

Occurrence and Characteristics of Staphylococcus aureus in a Hungarian Dairy Farm during a Control Program.

In this research, our aim was to assess the occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus in a Hungarian large-scale dairy farm during the S. aureus control program conducted in the course of our studies. Furthermore, the phenotypic and genotypic properties of the isolates (type of haemolysis, antibiotic susceptibility, staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) gene carrying ability and spa type) were determined. S. aureus was detected in all bulk tank milk samples collected during this study. Two different spa types were identified among the 17 strains isolated in the farm. A total of 14 of the 17 studied strains (82%) showed β-haemolysis on blood agar, 2/17 strains (12%) expressed double zone and 1/17 strains (6%) showed weak β-haemolysis. All strains were susceptible to most antibiotics tested (cefoxitin, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, gentamicin, tetracycline and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole), but all strains were resistant to penicillin G. A total of 11 of the 17 strains (65%) were found to harbour seg, sei, selm, seln, selo genes; 4/17 strains (24%) harboured sei, selm, seln, selo genes and 2/17 strains (11%) harboured sei gene. Since the new SEs/SEls can also cause foodborne outbreaks potentially and all strains were found to be resistant to penicillin G, it is essential to decrease and keep the prevalence of S. aureus low in the dairy farm and the implementation of the S. aureus control program is also highly justified. The results showed that the S. aureus count decreased by the end of our studies, so the control program was proved to be effective.

The Impact of TMR Centers on Milk Production Cost in Large-Scale Dairy Farming

The Impact of TMR Centers on Milk Production Cost in Large-Scale Dairy Farming

Economic Efficiency of Self-supplied Feed and its Condition on Large-scale Dairy Farm

Economic Efficiency of Self-supplied Feed and its Condition on Large-scale Dairy Farm

A laktációszám és a laktáció stádium hatása a tejmennyiségre, a nyers tehéntej összetételére és mikrobiológiai tulajdonságaira egy hazai tehenészeti telepen

Changes in the composition and hygienic properties of milk affect producer price, so it is essential for the responsible dairy farmer to collect information on changes in these parameters due to various factors. In their study, the authors seek to answer the question whether there is a fluctuation in the daily milk yield of cows and in the composition (fat and protein content) and microbiological properties (somatic cell count, total plate count, coliform and S. aureus count) of raw cow’s milk in primiparous and multiparous cows or at different stages of their lactation. Based on the data of a Hungarian large-scale dairy farm, it was found that there was no difference in the fat and protein content of the milk, but the daily milk yield was higher in the case of multiparous cows and, compared to the milk of primiparous cows, their milk had a higher somatic cell count and larger amounts of coliform bacteria. The daily milk yield decreased in the successive stages of lactation, but the fat and protein content of the milk increased, which is presumably due to the concentrating effect of the decreasing milk yield. No significant change was observed in the colony count of microorganisms at the different stages of lactation.

Animal welfare assessment based on Welfare Quality® criteria in a dairy farm in Turkey

This study served as a pilot to examine the practical implementation of the Welfare Quality® assessment protocol for cattle in dairy farms in Turkey. The study was carried out in the large-scale dairy farm of Ataturk University, in a free-stall-housed herd composed of Holstein, Brown Swiss and Simmental cattle. Whether the standards of the farm management programme and some of the welfare criteria chosen from the protocol were met was determined with the scoring method described in the Welfare Quality® publications. The somatic cell count (SCC) of the milk samples, and the avoidance distance and body condition score (BCS) of the animals were also determined and recorded. The body condition scores (BCS) of the Holstein, Simmental and Brown Swiss cattle were determined as 2.56, 3.16 and 3.88, respectively. Only 7% of the 53 cows had lameness, and none of the animals were evaluated as ‘resting a foot, standing on the edge of a step, displaying stepping (weight shifting) or showing reluctance to bear weight’. The animals were also evaluated based on some health indicators. The percentages of animals displaying nasal and ocular discharge were 16% and 9%, respectively. No clinical signs were recorded for hampered respiration, diarrhea or vulvar discharge. The mean SCC of the milk samples was (log 10) 4.43 cells/ml and below the European Union’s raw milk SCC threshold. In conclusion, according to the assessment based on Welfare Quality® criteria, the animal welfare level at the dairy farm of Ataturk University was scored as %70.92 and was considered to meet the relevant EU standards.

Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus Isolates From Cases of Clinical Bovine Mastitis on Large-Scale Chinese Dairy Farms.

Bovine mastitis is a prevalent disease that causes serious economic problems globally in the dairy industry. Staphylococcus aureus is an important pathogen of bovine mastitis. This study was conducted to characterize S. aureus isolates from clinical bovine mastitis cases in large-scale dairy herds in China. S. aureus was isolated from 624 clinical mastitis cases and confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). In total, 62 S. aureus isolates were obtained. Cluster analysis, genetic diversity, quantification of biofilm formation, antimicrobial resistance, and detection of virulence genes were performed on these isolates of S. aureus. Eight isolates harbored the mecA gene and were sensitive to oxacillin. MALDI-TOF MS cluster analysis revealed that the 62 isolates were divided into three major clusters (I, II, III) and eight main groups (A–H) at the distance level of 700. The agr II was the most prevalent (56.5%). The 62 S. aureus isolates were assigned to seven spa types. The most common spa type was t529(58.1%), followed by t2196 (14.5%), t518 (14.5%), t571(6.5%), t034 (3.2%), t2734 (1.6%), and t730 (1.6%). Five STs were identified from seven representative isolates as follows: ST630/CC8, ST97/CC97, ST50, ST398, and ST705. All isolates had the ability to form biofilm. Antimicrobial resistance was most frequently observed to ciprofloxacin (29%), followed by penicillin (24.2%), and streptomycin (9.6%). All isolates harbored the fnbA, clfB (100%), icaA, and icaD genes. This study provides the basis for the development of bovine mastitis prevention program on large-scale dairy farms.

Isolation and Antimicrobial Susceptibility Profile of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 from Raw Milk of Dairy Cattle in Holeta District, Central Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted in small, medium, and large-scale dairy farms of Holeta district to isolate, identify, and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 in raw milk of dairy cattle. A total of 210 lactating cows were selected for raw milk samples, and 19% (40/210) were found to be positive for E. coli whereas 5.2% (11/210) were confirmed as E. coli O157 : H7 positive using the Escherichia coli O157 latex test. Accordingly, all E. coli was highly susceptible to Ciprofloxacin (100%), Gentamycin (100%), Oxytetracycline (100%), and Tetracycline (63.63%). Furthermore, the resistance of 72.73%, 54.54%, 54.54%, and 45.45% was developed to Cefoxitin, Sulphamethoxazole, Cloxacillin, and Streptomycin, respectively. Factors such as parity, age, body condition, herd size, milk yield, udder hygiene, and udder lesion showed a statistically significant ( p < 0.05 ) association with the occurrence of E. coli infection in dairy cattle. In conclusion, in this study, a higher prevalence of Escherichia coli O157 : H7 and its drug susceptibility profile is an alarm for the health of the public, and awareness creation to the farm owners and the community is recommended.

Dairy Value Chain Upgrading in Bishoftu Town, East Shewa, Oromia, Ethiopia

Despite tremendous potential for dairy production in Ethiopia, the sector is not upgraded generally in the country and specifically in Bishoftu town. Dairy value chain upgrading was analyzed with objectives of identifying actors in dairy value chain upgrading and measuring their performances. Data were collected in the town at dairy producers’ level, traders (retailers) level and expert level through structured questionnaire and key informant interviews. Censuses of 141 dairy producers were conducted by dividing them into three different scale farm producers. Accordingly producers who have 1-5 dairy cows were categorized as small scale producers, 6-10 medium scale producers and >11 dairy cows were taken as large scale dairy farms. Based on this classification there were 100, 34, and 7 small, medium and large scale dairy respectively in the town. It was assumed that all large scale were processors, but one producer was found to be non-processor and was omitted from census survey. So, the survey was conducted with 140 dairy producers in the town. Data were analyzed by value chain analysis. The results from the descriptive statistics shows that from total dairy producers 46% were processing dairy /milk into yogurt, cheese and butter. Twenty four percent of the producers convert milk into yogurt, 11% process into cheese and butter, and another 11% process dairy into yogurt, cheese and butter. Therefore, producers’ socioeconomic factors and institutional factors needed to be strengthened by supportive activities like training for capacity building of producers in order to upgrade dairy value chain in town. Keywords: Upgrading, Value chain, performances, Dairy, Bishoftu town DOI: 10.7176/FSQM/103-01 Publication date: December 31 st 2020

Reducing electricity demand peaks on large-scale dairy farms

As countries seek to meet climate change mitigation obligations and integrate high levels of variable renewable generation into electricity systems, opportunities for flexible demand are increasingly being sought to provide a cost-effective approach to balancing electricity grids. In New Zealand, the dairy farming sector has the capacity to shift demand outside of peak periods and balance grid demand. We assess the potential for a group of six large-scale New Zealand dairy farms to provide electricity demand flexibility by analysing their electricity demand patterns based on one year of 30 min resolution electricity data. Daily profiles of electricity demand are analysed to demonstrate that irrigation and milking related electricity consumption contribute to peaks. Under a proposed time-of use (TOU) pricing model, 20% of electricity costs in the dairy shed result from the morning peak period. Flattening demand would reduce electricity costs for milking by 3.3% as more of the demand would be overnight and ‘off-peak’. TOU changes to irrigation were found to make responding to peaks more difficult where at least 600 kW had previously been available for load shedding during the irrigation season. If farmers were able to alter their practices or utilise energy storage technologies in response to time-of-use pricing they could reduce energy costs and reduce their impact on peaks in demand on the electricity network.

APPLICATION OF SMART GRID TECHNOLOGY ON A LARGE DAIRY FARM

Currently, the improved performance of renewable energy sources triggered their increased application. In most cases, however, they are combined with a centralized power supply. Therefore, power production from multiple sources and power consumption requires efficient coordination. A solution may be Smart Grid Technology. It allows improving efficiency, reliability, and stability of electricity generation and distribution under certain economic benefits. The study objective was to assess the practicability of establishing a smart grid on large-scale dairy farms with above 1000 cow stock. The study was based on the electricity consumption data obtained on the modern dairy farms in the Leningrad Region, Russia, associated with the electricity inputs, the energy distribution scheme on a dairy farm and the use of transformer substations. The conceptual scheme of the smart grid for a dairy farm was developed. The factors for assessing the local electricity generation resources were considered including a proposed comprehensive environmental indicator, which takes into account the volume of pollutants produced and the degree of their negative impact on the environment. The study verified the principal possibility and feasibility of establishing a smart grid for large dairy farms.

The Colonisation of Calves in Czech Large-Scale Dairy Farms by Clonally-Related Clostridioides difficile of the Sequence Type 11 Represented by Ribotypes 033 and 126.

To investigate a possible Clostridioides difficile reservoir in the Czech Republic, we performed a study in 297 calves from 29 large-scale dairy farms. After enrichment, faecal samples were inoculated onto selective agar for C. difficile. From the 297 samples, 44 C. difficile isolates were cultured (prevalence of 14.8%, 10 farms). The Holstein breed and use of digestate were associated with C. difficile colonisation (p ˂ 0.05). C. difficile isolates belonged to the ribotype/sequence type: RT033/ST11 (n = 37), RT126/ST11 (n = 6) and RT046/ST35 (n = 1). A multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis revealed four clonal complexes of RT033 isolates and one clonal complex of RT126 isolates. All isolates were sensitive to amoxicillin, metronidazole and vancomycin. Forty isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin, twenty-one to clindamycin, seven to erythromycin, seven to tetracycline and six to moxifloxacin. Moxifloxacin resistant isolates revealed an amino-acid substitution Thr82Ile in the GyrA. In conclusion, the calves of Holstein breed from farms using digestate as a product of bio-gas plants are more likely to be colonised by clonally-related C. difficile of ST 11 represented by ribotypes 033 and 126. The identified resistance to moxifloxacin with a Thr82Ile substitution in the GyrA highlights the need for further monitoring by the “One health approach”.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Surveillance Using Pooled Milk on a Large-Scale Dairy Farm in an Endemic Setting.

Pooled milk is used for the surveillance of several diseases of livestock. Previous studies demonstrated the detection of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in the milk of infected animals at high dilutions, and consequently, the collection of pooled milk samples could be used to enhance FMD surveillance. This study evaluated pooled milk for FMDV surveillance on a large-scale dairy farm that experienced two FMD outbreaks caused by the A/ASIA/G-VII and O/ME-SA/Ind-2001d lineages, despite regular vaccination and strict biosecurity practices. FMDV RNA was detected in 42 (5.7%) of the 732 pooled milk samples, and typing information was concordant with diagnostic reports of clinical disease. The FMDV positive milk samples were temporally clustered around reports of new clinical cases, but with a wider distribution. For further investigation, a model was established to predict real-time RT-PCR (rRT-PCR) CT values using individual cattle movement data, clinical disease records and virus excretion data from previous experimental studies. The model explained some of the instances where there were positive results by rRT-PCR, but no new clinical cases and suggested that subclinical infection occurred during the study period. Further studies are required to investigate the effect of vaccination on FMDV excretion in milk, and to evaluate more representative sampling methods. However, the results from this pilot study indicate that testing pooled milk by rRT-PCR may be valuable for FMD surveillance and has provided evidence of subclinical virus infection in vaccinated herds that could be important in the epidemiology of FMD in endemic countries where vaccination is used.

Evaluation of River Water Quality in Agricultural Watershed with the Environmental Standards

Japan has general environmental standards for organic matter in its public water bodies. However, there are no environmental standards for nutrient salts such as phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) in river water. In this study, the water quality of rivers at normal water level was evaluated in agricultural watersheds by focusing on water quality standards. The investigated sites are in the Tokachi area (24 watersheds; upland and dairy farming) and the Nemuro area (11 watersheds; large-scale dairy farming), which are in Eastern Hokkaido. The investigations were carried out in the two agricultural areas in 2005, 2006 and 2012. Electrical conductivity (EC) and water temperature were measured at the same time as river water samples were collected in the two areas. Water quality was analyzed for potential of hydrogen (pH), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), suspended solids (SS), total phosphorus (T-P), total nitrogen (T-N) and other values. Most of the values associated with organic matter, such as pH, BOD and SS, in river water were within the thresholds for the standards of The Environmental Standards Concerning the Conservation of the Living Environment (Rivers). In contrast, some values of nutrient salts (N and P) exceeded the thresholds (T-P≦0.1 mg/L, T-N≦1.0 mg/L). Many of the watersheds in the Tokachi area had T-N concentration in excess of 1.0 mg/L. This suggests that the concentrations of nutrient salts (P and N) increase with increases in agricultural land development in a watershed. For the evaluation of river water quality in agricultural watersheds, it was found to be necessary to measure both organic matter and nutrient salts as indices of water quality. And it was found that controlling the runoff of P and N from agricultural land is essential for water quality conservation in public water bodies.

Characterizing nitrogen distribution, source and transformation in groundwater of ecotone of agriculture–animal husbandry: an example from North China

The ecological environment of the ecotone of agriculture–animal husbandry in North China is fragile and the groundwater resources are in short supply, in particular, nitrogen contamination is serious. So, the nitrogen source, distribution and transformation in groundwater need to be investigated. A case study was conducted in Tuoketuo County, Inner Mongolia. Hydro-geological, hydro-geochemical, and quality monitoring of groundwater were investigated in the study area. Altogether, 66 groundwater samples were taken with an equal number from both the unconfined and confined aquifers in the study area. The results show that the ammonium compound (NH4+) was the most prevalent species of nitrogen contamination. Both the irrigations of farmland with contaminated surface water and the excessive usage of chemical fertilizers were probably two major non-point sources of nitrogen contamination. The large-scale dairy farm effluents also play an important role in nitrogen contamination in local areas of an unconfined aquifer. The nitrogen contamination in the confined aquifer was mainly due to the leakage recharge of the contaminated unconfined water. The mean concentrations of NO3−, NO2− and NH4+ in confined aquifer were significantly lower and the areas exceeding the water quality standard were similar but smaller than those in an unconfined aquifer. The spatial distributions, migration and transformation of ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3−) and nitrite (NO2−) in the investigation area were closely related to the characteristics of the groundwater flow system and the hydro-geochemical environment. In the groundwater recharge area, nitrification plays a leading role, with NO3− as the major contaminant. Along the groundwater discharge zone, the denitrification, anammox and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (NDRA) processes may occur, causing NH4+ to become the main contaminant. The Cl– contamination was also severe both in unconfined and confined aquifers. High concentrations of NO3− and NH4+ were mainly observed in the groundwater of Ca·Mg–Cl and Na–Cl types. The background type of water for unconfined and confined aquifers was mainly Ca–HCO3. This study will provide helpful information to identify the most contaminated locations in the study area for environmental management in future and provides a reference for preserving the environment of ecologically fragile areas.