Largest Gas Reserves Research Articles

Reservoir space of the Es33–Es41 shale in Dongying sag

The Es33–Es41 shales in Dongying sag are source rocks with large reserves of shale oil and gas. For the identification of development characteristics and geological significance of the reservoir space, FMI logging, core observation, thin section analysis, X-ray diffraction, fluorescence microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, mercury porosimetry, low-temperature nitrogen adsorption, atomic force microscopy, and conventional physical property testing were used to study the petrology and reservoir space of the Es33–Es41 shale in Dongying sag. The results suggest that the shale is rich in carbonate minerals. Phanerocrystalline stratiform and lamellar argillaceous limestone and calcareous claystone are the oil- and gas-bearing lithofacies. The oil in the micropores is mainly present as membranes and clots. The shale reservoir space has a network structure with veins, carbonate and clay minerals, and micropores among pyrite and the matrix. The results provide the geological framework for future shale oil and gas exploration in Dongying sag.

Exposing the Paradoxes of Climate and Energy Governance

What's Wrong with Climate Politics, and How to Fix It. By Paul G. Harris. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2013. 296 pp., $21.80 paperback (ISBN-13: 978-0-745-65251-1). Institutionalizing Unsustainability: The Paradox of Global Climate Governance. By Hayley Stevenson. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2012. 308 pp., $29.67 paperback (ISBN-13: 978-1-938-16902-1). Influenced by an obsession with economics and technology, most energy and climate analysts frequently ask the wrong questions. They will ponder how large proven reserves of oil and gas are being extracted rather than challenging the need to utilize oil and gas in the first place, or asking whether oil and gas infrastructures are fair to their workers or the communities that live near them. They will assess and model energy prices and technological learning curves, rather than ask how existing energy infrastructures benefit some people to the exclusion of others. They will map energy and climate scenarios, track atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, and discuss the pros or pitfalls of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, but refrain from interrogating the underlying logic behind an international economic system that continues to emit dangerous amounts of greenhouse gases. The standard dogma of climate change discourse—that it is a technical problem best left to experts and scientists to resolve—is so entrenched that it is incredibly refreshing when knowledgeable people offer an alternative view. It is even more rewarding when their analysis is penetrating, well written, and well argued, as is the case with both Paul G. Harris's (2013) What's Wrong with Climate Politics and Hayley Stevenson's (2012) Institutionalizing Unsustainability . Harris begins by arguing that there are three fundamental reasons we have failed to develop adequate political responses to climate change. The “cancer of Westphalia” refers to an international system which encourages countries to fight for narrow, short-term interests. The “malignancy of great polluters” refers to the inability of the United States and China to do anything about it. The “addictions of modernity” refer to growing levels of pollution that accompany our modern lifestyles. This tripartite framing of challenges then leads us to Harris's three solutions. We should seek …

Turkey vis-Ã -vis Central Asia: a geostrategic assessment

The aim of this paper is to contribute to increase knowledge about a remote region of the world, but of utmost importance in the geopolitical context of today - Central Asia - as a result of its strategic position as a link between East and West, a space of competition and reinforcement of the great powers. Besides, the region has been, in recent years, attracting the attention of foreign investors due to the existence of large reserves of oil and gas. The central argument is that Turkey demonstrates a predominantly economic interest (the search for energy resources) towards the region, pursuing fundamentally realistic-driven policies with regard to it. Alternatively to the participant and non-participant observation, difficult techniques to apply to this object of study, we resorted to the semistructured interview. The field research was done through interviews conducted predominantly in Central Asia to key individuals related to the issues studied. Convinced that the behaviour of the states, the power or influence are not likely to translate into tangible realities, mathematical formulas, or mere statistics, we assume that the use of the qualitative method, through the hermeneutic analysis, is the methodology supporting this investigation. We suggest that Turkey inspires itself on the Chinese policy towards Central Asia, which has shown remarkable vigour in recent years, and try to figure out how it can profit from an Ankara-Tehran-Central Asia-Beijing axis, in the context of the Chinese New Silk Road, in order to project its power in the regional sphere and boost (even more) its economy.

Shale-to-well energy use and air pollutant emissions of shale gas production in China

Tapping its large reserves of unconventional gas, China has launched shale gas exploration and started drilling wells in trial development zones. To better understand the potential energy and air pollution implications of shale gas production in China, this study developed a hybrid life cycle inventory (LCI) model that combines process and input–output (IO) based LCI methods for estimating “shale-to-well” energy use, resource use, and emissions of air pollutants. The model’s structure and inputs are based on data from the first shale gas horizontal well in China. The IO model was constructed using the 2007 benchmark IO table for China. Results suggest shale-to-well energy use of 59 TJ and shale-to-well greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 5500 metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e). Shale-to-well energy use and air emissions were dominated by the production and use of diesel fuel for oil-based drilling fluids and for on-site combustion, and by fugitive emissions and flaring from well completion. The results shed light on some potential energy and air pollutant emission impacts of a shift from coal to shale gas in China, and highlight opportunities for reducing these impacts moving forward.

Asia Central: lo sobresaliente de su historia y geografía

Este artículo tiene como objetivo destacar las principales características históricas y geopolíticas de Asia Central. Diversas corrientes geopolíticas destacan la importancia de Asia Central bajo la geoestratégica y la economía global. Autores como H. Mackinder o Z. Brzezinski, destacaron la importancia del 'Heartland' (es decir, los Balcanes euroasiáticos), mientras 'eje del mundo' y espacio geopolítico. El argumento central es que esta es una región de gran importancia en el escenario económico actual, como resultado de su posición estratégica como nexo entre Oriente y Occidente, un espacio de competencia entre las grandes potencias. Al revisar la historia y a través de una revisión de la literatura, este trabajo pretende contribuir a aumentar el conocimiento sobre una región remota del mundo, pero de suma importancia en el contexto geopolítico y económico de hoy. Además, la región sigue, en los últimos años, atrayendo la atención de los inversores extranjeros debido a la existencia de grandes reservas de petróleo y gas.

New Alignments? The Geopolitics of Gas and Oil Cartels and the Changing Middle East

The ongoing democratic movements and civil wars in the Middle East have challenged the stability of regimes across the region. On the other hand, the commercial exploitation of large reserves of unconventional oil and gas in the United States is poised to significantly change the current equilibrium in energy markets. What are the implications of these developments on Saudi Arabia’s energy policy? Will the long-standing U.S.-Saudi alliance remain the cornerstone of the kingdom’s relationship with the outside world? We study these questions using a game-theoretic approach. Specifically, we investigate whether the new political and economic trends may warm the Saudi regime to a workable energy cartel with Russia. We analyze the outcomes from different coalitions that could form among major energy suppliers and show that this is indeed a possibility. We discuss the implications of our results for U.S. policy toward Saudi Arabia.

Shale gas in South Africa

The potentially large shale gas reserves in South Africa's Karoo region have provoked serious debate. Critics cite legitimate environmental concerns related to hydraulic fracturing, the controversial gas extraction technique also known as ‘fracking’. Members of industry and others promote the potentially transformational impact on South Africa's post-apartheid economy. Yet scholars and analysts have thus far focused on immediate concerns and relatively short-term goals. To address the broader security implications related to South Africa's potential commercial shale gas reserves, this article takes a new approach and establishes important areas of further study.

Sedimentology and stratigraphy of an intra-cratonic basin coal seam gas play: Walloon Subgroup of the Surat Basin, eastern Australia

Large gas reserves are trapped in the coals of the Middle Jurassic (Callovian) Walloon Subgroup (lower part of the Injure Creek Group) in the Surat Basin, eastern Australia. The series is divided into the Juandah Coal Measures (upper), Tangalooma Sandstone and Taroom Coal Measures (lower). The upper and lower units are locally further subdivided. These economically important coals were deposited in an alluvial plain setting within an interior basin, which has no recorded contemporaneous marine influence. The coals are typically bituminous, perhydrous and low rank with a high volatile content. Despite individual ply (bench) thicknesses typically less than a metre, series of plies or seams of coals up to 10 m thick have historically been tentatively correlated across the entire play area (over 150 km).

Geological structure and petroleum resource potential of the North Sea basin

The North Sea basin occupies a spacious depression almost isometric in shape. In the west and northwest, the basin is bordered by the continental crust consolidated during the Precambrian, Caledonian, and Hercynian orogenic epochs, which now forms epiplatformal orogenic structures. They are represented by the London-Brabant uplift and the Arden massif in the southwest and south and the Baltic Shield in the east and northeast. The North Sea basin may be considered as an ancient aulacogen that was transformed in the Early Mesozoic into a complex system of continental rifts and grabens. The sedimentary cover of the basin is represented by a thick (8.5–12.5 km) Ordovician-Quaternary sequence. Oil and gas generation in the sedimentary cover of the basin is likely connected with four main productive sequences: the coaliferous Upper Carboniferous (Westphalian), the subsalt Zechstein, the Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous (Lotharingian, Toarcian, Kimmeridgian, and Weldian bituminose shales), and the shaly Cenozoic. The large oil and gas reserves in the North Sea’s sedimentary cover (over 280 fields) implies that the above-mentioned sequences have realized their oil-generating potential. The present-day position of the main oil and gas generation zones in the sedimentary section of the North Sea explains the distribution of the oil and gas fields through the basin from the genetic standpoint. The petroleum resource potential of the basin is still significant. In this regard, most promising are the spacious shelf areas, turbidite sediments, deep Paleozoic sequences, and continental slopes in the northern part of the basin, which remains insufficiently investigated.

Target Cambodia

Target Cambodia

Intergenerational socio-economic mobility and national development in Nigeria

Nigeria is blessed with an abundance of human and natural resources. It is the 6 th largest exporter of crude oil, formerly the largest and now the third largest exporter of palm oil in the world. It has the largest gas reserves in Africa including a vast accumulation of other natural resources and a population of about 147 million people, but it is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. This contradiction seems to evidence the fact that resources alone are not sufficient to engender growth and national development. For development to occur, the resources (human and material) must be employed to serve the positive needs of man. The human resources must be encouraged to work, initiate, interact and direct material resources towards solving practical problems and creating conveniences for man. For these to be, each and everybody in the society should be given an opportunity to contribute his or her quota toward meeting individual and collective needs. There is a need to create an opportunity space for all to contribute their talents, abilities and aptitudes towards solving societal problems. The wider the opportunity, the better for the economy. However, in Nigeria, unemployment, poverty, corruption, inequality among others, narrow the opportunity structure with the consequence that only a few people are positively engaged while majority of Nigerians rest heavily on receipts from the petroleum industry with its pollution and corruption side effects. This, has generated so much problems as the untapped energy is dissipated in negative directions in an attempt to ‘corner’ a larger share of the petroleum proceeds which is seen as free, God-given national cake which needs no work to benefit from. Intergenerational socio-economic mobility is an index that measures the opportunity structure in society, and the wider the opportunity structure, the more development is likely to occur. In sum, it is not just resources (oil or no oil) but the opportunity space that will engender development.

Selection of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Contracts for Minimizing Procurement Cost

Recent increases in energy prices, the rise in natural gas demand due to the concerns over CO2 emissions and a possible carbon tax, the development of a low-cost and high-capacity liquefied natural gas (LNG) value chain, the emergence of new suppliers with large gas reserves, the flow of uncommitted LNG capacity to the market, and the disappearance of conventional clauses such as destination are stimulating global LNG trade. Moreover, natural gas liberalization is resulting in the emergence of new buyers with variable demands, which is increasing the competitiveness and dynamicity of the LNG market. The LNG contracts are thus diversifying in price formulations, flexibility, duration, quality, quantity, commitment, discount, and other terms and conditions. Finding a combination of contracts and suppliers, which trades off various cost factors in an optimal manner, is becoming more and more challenging, where systematic optimization-based approaches can be very useful. In this study, we address contract selection from the perspective of an LNG buyer company. We develop a mixed-integer linear programming formalism that helps the buyer select the best combination of suppliers and contracts in an integrated manner that addresses various aspects, such as contract timings and lengths, demands, price formulations, volume discounts, delivery terms, shipment costs, purchase commitments, etc. We minimize the sum of purchase and transport costs, and we illustrate our approach using three examples with diverse and realistic features.

Iran ambitious for regional supremacy: the great powers, geopolitics and energy resources

Iran's geographical location makes the country strategically vital. From the south, the Persian Gulf with its close proximity to the Indian Ocean Region and to the north, Central Asia. This means that Iran forms a geographic ‘corridor’ between Europe, Africa, South Asia and South East Asia. Combined oil and gas reserves of the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea total over 60% of the global oil and gas reserves and much of this is transported via the Indian Ocean. Global energy consumption is expected to increase by 49% from 2007 to 2035 as demand increases from China and India. Iran has the fifth largest oil reserves and the second largest gas reserves in the world. In addition to these resources, Iran has a population of 70 million, 65% of whom are under 30 years-old and are comparatively highly educated. These combined elements give the country the potential to be a major player in both the security and development of the region. Since 1979, Iran has taken an ‘Eastward’ orientated political stance, cutting its diplomatic ties with the United States. Historically, Iran has had significant linguistic and cultural links with most of the countries in Central Asia and has maintained close relationships, both economically and politically, with other countries in the region. These relationships have taken a new shape since the 1979 Iranian Revolution, creating closer linkages with the East in order for Iran to establish itself as a regional power. Hence, on a domestic, regional and global level, Iran's approach to the Indian Ocean Region is crucial. Following the end of the Cold War (1947–1992), as the United States became the only great power in the world and India and China emerged as major economic forces, the focus on the importance of the region has deepened. Indeed, the current Islamic Republic leaders’ intention to turn Iran into a regional player by acquiring nuclear energy is a reflection of their ambitious vision for the country, within the region and beyond.

Prospect of Natural Gas Industry in Iran

Iran holds the second largest gas reserves in the word with over 27.5 trillion cubic meters (TCM) of natural gas. Due to lack of geological surveys in certain geographical regions in Iran. It is likely to explore further reserves in the future. Hence, for utilizing this energy carrier, it is essential to have comprehensive and explicit planning knowledge. The study of gas industry development policies is indicative of certain barriers in utilizing prospective opportunities. Iran is one of the largest gas rich countries in the world that production capacity exceeds domestic consumption and gas injection requirements. Gas can be utilized as feed stock in petrochemical plants and refineries or exported through pipeline or LNG. Through reinjection of gas to oil reservoirs, while increasing the oil recovery ratios, the produced gases from fields shared with other countries could be stored into domestic gas fields.Gas consumption in domestic markets and its substitution with oil products, in addition to providing environmental benefits, will also result in optimum consumption of these products and relieving the government from the heavy burden of existing and heavy expenditures of importing these products from foreign countries.The need for energy sources in the world along with the enormous natural gas reserves in the country opens broad economical/political dialogue scene towards us and contributes an outstanding strategic significance to our gas resources. Supplying gas requirements, proper and timely production and operation of joint reservoirs such as the south pars with the intention of supplying gas requirements and providing balance of supply and demand as well as maximum utilization of our share in these fields are other development requirements of this significant industry.For planning and policy making regarding the development of gas industry, it is essential to manage all aspects of gas from exploration and production to consumption, injection and exports and etc. through a sole administrative institution so that prearranged plans could be implemented without becoming subjected to such problems as lack of coordination parallel activities and organization al problems. Gas fuels consumption occupies one half of Iran's energy consumption, and to increment this share, the government should increase investment in the gas sector.Natural gas while being utilized as a clean fuel in domestic markets can become a device to implement gas injection to oil production from the countries reserves as well as gas exports towards presence in international venues and commercializing gas globally.Prediction indicates that natural gas being the favorable fuel of the present century, will enjoy the largest growth among items within the energy basket and during the next twenty years as well, the growth of natural gas demand in the world will exceed other conventional energy sources. In the future, due to various factors such as vaster accessible sources and reserves, developed technologies which in effect reduce project expenditure and construction periods and consequently improve the economy of developing gas transmission projects, as well as global endeavors to curtail emission of green house gases, are the major reasons for gas consumption growth.Iran, in respect to her geographical and political strategic situation, can play a leading role in global gas supply and act in Europe and Asia. Natural gas still maintains the fastest consumption growth rate among the world's primary energies and is realized to have the highest consumption growth among the developing countries.Gas has been recognizing as the fuel for the future. This is entirely evident as a result of decreasing global resources due to environmental considerations. According to IEA estimates, in year 2015, oil demand will reach 93 million barrels and natural gas demand will reach 64 million barrels of oil equivalent. This in effect is a 20% increase for oil and 45% for gas in regard to current figures in conclusion. It could be stated that more than ever before, gas has gained significance and is the leading basis for modern services in energy, and in the long term is considered a bridge towards a hydrogen resource based economy.Gas as a new fuel, provides the modern technology of fuel cell construction for vehicles possible. To portray the enormity of Iran gas reserves it is enough to consider that Iran's natural gas reserves alone exceeds the total volume of natural gas reserves in USA, Canada, Europe and the entire Asia pacific.

Potential Contribution of Firewood, Energy Forestation and Forest Residues in Turkey

In this paper, the firewood, energy forest and forest residue potentials of Turkey are investigated. Turkey has no large oil or gas reserves and more than half of the consumed energy is imported from abroad. Hence, in order to provide a sustainable economic development, new long-term energy strategies, which will reduce the share of fossil fuels and increase the share of renewable energy sources in the primary energy consumption, have to be developed. Presently, Turkey has 21.2 million hectares (ha) of forested land (27.2% of the territory) and the annual production of firewood is about 6–7 million m3. In addition, approximately 7 million m3 forest residues are formed during cutting and maintenance operations each year. Despite these high potentials, these resources can not be utilized efficiently. Most of the firewood produced is used illegally by local people for household needs. Only 15% of the available energy forests are utilized by classical methods which result in very low product yields and there are no modern plants to convert the firewood and forest residues into heat and electric energies. If, however, modern plants can be established to generate electric and heat energies from the produced firewood and formed forest residues, at least 2 Mtep (million tons of equivalent petroleum) of the energy consumption of the country can be met.

International Comparisons of the Experience of Deregulation and Restructuring of Natural Gas Transmission Industries

In many industrialized countries with mature gas pipeline systems, natural gas deregulation continues to change the structure of their gas transmission industries. This study identifies the general characteristics of such structural changes, and compares the experience of deregulation and restructuring in the United States, European Union, Canada, Australia, and Russia. The United States and European Union gas transmission industries are examined in relatively greater detail. The study shows that the unbundling of transmission networks, and the range of consumer choice and price levels, all reflect the state of competition that varies widely among these countries. On one extreme, is the most deregulated, radically restructured and very competitive United States natural gas transmission industry, and on the other end, the Russian Federation with the largest gas reserves in the world has a natural gas transmission industry that continues to operate as a government-controlled monopoly. The Russian gas transmission system efficiency needs to be enhanced and its corporate governance streamlined.

Oil and Gas Projects in the Western Amazon: Threats to Wilderness, Biodiversity, and Indigenous Peoples

BackgroundThe western Amazon is the most biologically rich part of the Amazon basin and is home to a great diversity of indigenous ethnic groups, including some of the world's last uncontacted peoples living in voluntary isolation. Unlike the eastern Brazilian Amazon, it is still a largely intact ecosystem. Underlying this landscape are large reserves of oil and gas, many yet untapped. The growing global demand is leading to unprecedented exploration and development in the region.Methodology/Principal FindingsWe synthesized information from government sources to quantify the status of oil development in the western Amazon. National governments delimit specific geographic areas or “blocks” that are zoned for hydrocarbon activities, which they may lease to state and multinational energy companies for exploration and production. About 180 oil and gas blocks now cover ∼688,000 km2 of the western Amazon. These blocks overlap the most species-rich part of the Amazon. We also found that many of the blocks overlap indigenous territories, both titled lands and areas utilized by peoples in voluntary isolation. In Ecuador and Peru, oil and gas blocks now cover more than two-thirds of the Amazon. In Bolivia and western Brazil, major exploration activities are set to increase rapidly.Conclusions/SignificanceWithout improved policies, the increasing scope and magnitude of planned extraction means that environmental and social impacts are likely to intensify. We review the most pressing oil- and gas-related conservation policy issues confronting the region. These include the need for regional Strategic Environmental Impact Assessments and the adoption of roadless extraction techniques. We also consider the conflicts where the blocks overlap indigenous peoples' territories.

Sulige field in the Ordos Basin: Geological setting, field discovery and tight gas reservoirs

The Sulige gas field in central Ordos Basin is one of the largest gas fields in China, with about 860.7 billion cubic meters (bcm) of proven gas reserve. This field covers an area of about 500 km 2, with largely tight clastic reservoirs. The Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian deltaic sandstones and Upper Permian lacustrine mudstones deposited in a stable cratonic tectonic setting form an effective petroleum system that is favorable for gas accumulation in large-scale stratigraphic–lithologic traps. Based on wire line log response, drilling stem test and core data, a generalized classification system was developed for the gas reservoirs of the Sulige field, thus Type I and II rocks are capable of gas production without natural and/or artificial fracturing, Type III rocks are capable of gas production after artificial fracturing and Type IV rocks are too tight to produce at commercial rates even with artificial fracturing. The discovery of the Sulige field not only adds large gas reserve in the Ordos Basin, but strongly indicates the overlook potential of both tight sandstone reservoir rock and relatively porous and permeable sweet spots in it.

Prospects for nuclear power in Australia and New Zealand

The nuclear debate in Australia was recently enlivened by a Federal Government report (released in December 2006) on the economic viability of nuclear power as an option for electricity generation. Given the nation's large reserves of coal and gas, the question of the role of nuclear power rests to a large extent on future climate policy. Australia has the world's largest reserves of uranium and is currently the second largest producer and exporter of the resource in the world. There may be some scope in the future for Australia to expand its nuclear industry to include enrichment and reprocessing activities.

Comments: Russian Transition

With sizable oil reserves and the world's largest gas reserves, Russia undoubtedly will play a critical role in how well the oil and gas industry meets future demand. The country made a significant contribution in the first half of this decade when global demand, primarily from China, put increasing pressure on suppliers, lifting oil prices to nominal record territory. Some estimates credit Russia with supplying up to 40% of the incremental global demand that has occurred since 2000. The Russian oil and gas industry is in transition, technically and politically. For the past decade, emphasis has been placed on activating idle wells and optimization. Workovers and applying advanced technology to existing wells will continue to be important, but attention is now turning to finding and developing new reserves. Many of these are in hostile and remote conditions, such as in eastern Siberia, offshore Sakhalin and the Barents Sea, and Timan Pechora, which has proved reserves estimated at 8 billion bbl. That shift means new investment and new technology. Needed are advanced seismic imaging, platforms that can be used in heavy ice, undersea pipelines, and the latest drilling techniques. SPE's first Russian Oil and Gas Technical Conference and Exhibition, to be held 3–6 October in Moscow, will cover those aspects of industry development and numerous technical disciplines in the 4-day event (see article, p. 38). Particular emphasis will be devoted to technology applications and exchange. Russian oil production slowed last year, following strong growth of 11% and 9% in 2003 and 2004, respectively. The slowdown came from more stringent tax policy and the government's breakup of oil giant Yukos. Both underscore the government's increasingly active oversight of the energy industry, which Russian President Vladimir Putin calls the "holy of holies" of the country's economy. Yukos, once Russia's biggest oil company, was decimated by prosecutions and government orders to repay billions of dollars in back taxes. Yukos' founder Mikhail Khodorkovsky is now serving an 8-year prison sentence in Chita in eastern Siberia for fraud and tax evasion, a conviction some claim was politically motivated. Rosneft acquired Yukos' assets and now has risen to become the second-largest oil company in the country behind Lukoil. In an interview with JPT 3 years ago, Khodorkovsky stressed the importance of a stable tax regime and energy policy in attracting foreign investment and improving Russia's oil industry. Government policy on oil is still in flux but could be decided this summer. In June, the Parliament began discussing a draft law on subsoil resources that would ban companies in which foreigners own more than 49% from securing development rights in "strategic" fields. The new law likely would increase the dominance of state-owned energy firms such as Gazprom and Rosneft and encourage international oil companies to partner with Russian firms. Even with those restrictions, Russian oil policy would be more open than in some large-producing countries. Consuming countries think of energy security in terms of security of supply. But for large-scale producers, such as Russia, energy security means prudent development of state resources, getting a fair return from the exploitation of those resources, and security of demand. Although Russia needs western technology to remain one of the world's major producers and exporters, the question for foreign oil companies is not whether they can afford to be in Russia but whether they can afford not to.