Large Protected Areas Research Articles

Plant, bird, and mammal diversity of the Tomogrande field station, Vichada, Colombia

The Altillanura is a unique ecosystem within the Colombian Llanos, characterized by well-drained savannas and extensive riparian forests. The Altillanura harbors a rich assemblage of species, largely understudied and currently under threat by large-scale and unplanned agribusiness. Moreover, the number of public protected areas in the Colombian Llanos, particularly in the Altillanura, is insufficient to conserve the threatened habitats and species. Therefore, conservation efforts by private reserves are crucial for the protection of the region’s biodiversity. Here we present the first species list of the Tomogrande, a private nature reserve and scientific research field station in the municipality of Santa Rosalía, Vichada, Colombia. After ten years of ongoing research, we have recorded 299 species of plants, 189 species of birds, and 47 species of mammals. Compared to other private nature reserves in Vichada and the Tuparro National Park, the largest protected area in the region, Tomogrande makes a substantial contribution to the conservation of all three taxonomic groups. We advocate that better landscape planning and sustainable practices should become mandatory in the Altillanura to protect its biodiversity and the livelihoods of all stakeholders that inhabit this region.

Long-term persistence of the large mammal lowland tapir is at risk in the largest Atlantic forest corridor

Forest corridor has been considered the main strategy for maintaining gene flow between isolated populations, yet their effectivity is poorly tested. Assessing signatures of genetic variation loss, gene flow reduction and inbreeding may be helpful for conservation of the biodiversity that needs large continuous areas. Here we evaluated the genetic structure and diversity of the largest neotropical mammal, the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), living in the largest Atlantic forest corridor in Brazil. We used fecal-derived DNA, genotyped nine polymorphic microsatellite loci of 75 tapirs, and quantified genetic differentiation, genetic diversity, and landscape resistance to gene flow. We found genetic differentiation between the inland and coastal populations, which may be explained by elevation. Expected heterozygosity ranged between 0.64 (inland population) and 0.78 (coastal population), and a small Ne was observed in both populations. We demonstrated that even large continuous rainforests are not totally permeable to the gene flow of large organisms. Our study also changes our perception about the pristine of continuous corridors and their role for long-term survival of large mammals, suggesting that tapir conservation efforts should be taken even for populations in the large protected areas.

Question of Sustainability

The Kruger National Park is the largest protected area in South Africa. The park was opened to tourists in 1927 at a time when private automobiles were becoming a feature of South African cities. Since 1927 there has been a 67,879-fold increase in tourists until 2019. The current number of tourists is 1.8 million exceeds that of any other savannah, wildlife-based national park in Africa by at least four-fold and poses the danger of overtourism. The total number of tourists that can be accommodated by accommodation within the Kruger National Park is 7400, which is high for an African national park. The paper examines historic tourist trends and the regional concentration of tourist facilities within the park. Due to its accessibility, the southern region, which comprises 21.9% of the park, receives 73.9% of tourists and has 32.9% of the 2,562-kilometre road network and 49.8% of tourist beds. A survey of members of a social media group found that 90.9% believe the southern region is overdeveloped. Open Safari Vehicles (OSVs) could be part of an Alternative Transportation Programme (ATP) as they transport an average of 5.9 tourists, compared to an average of 2.4 tourists per private automobile. A survey was conducted on the same social media site to ascertain attitudes towards OSVs, which now account for 16.7% of the park’s tourists. A total of 1,320 responses were recorded and 29.24% believed that OSV drivers have no regard for other park users, while others regarded these vehicles as an important contribution to park conservation and management.

Status and ecology of forest ungulates in the Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon

Abstract Ungulates have undergone major declines in Central and West African forests as a result of bushmeat trade and habitat loss. Monitoring forest ungulate status is a critical conservation need. We undertook a systematic camera-trap survey of the 5260 km2 Dja Faunal Reserve, Cameroon’s largest protected area. We deployed cameras at 305 sites in eight grids across the reserve over 28,277 camera-trap days. We recorded 30,601 independent detections of 12 species of forest ungulate. The blue and Peters’ duikers were the most abundant, accounting for 82% of all ungulate detections, both with occupancy >85% in all survey grids. The black-fronted duiker was relatively widespread but rare. The white-bellied duiker and water chevrotain were found mostly in the southern part of the reserve. There were very few detections of sitatunga, forest buffalo and bongo. Our results suggest ecological partitioning among the more abundant duikers based on activity pattern and body size. The reserve faces many pressures including illegal subsistence and commercial hunting. Community surveillance and partnerships, with improved law enforcement are among measures being implemented by the Cameroon government to enhance security and ensure retention of the reserve’s World Heritage status.

Continuous growth of human footprint risks compromising the benefits of protected areas on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau

Protected areas (PAs) are the critical societal tool to preserve biodiversity and ecosystem services (ESs), but human disturbances frequently threaten them. Here, we used multiple data sources to map the human footprint as a proxy for identifying the intensity of human activities on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and therein nature reserves (NRs, the primary category of PAs in China). We found that the human footprint on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has increased by 22% since 2000, and on average, human pressure inside NRs was 60% lower than outside. However, human pressure was identified in the majority of the NRs, with only 30% of protected land free from any measurable pressure. From a total of 53 NRs, 28 showed over 10% increase in human footprint, and 6 NRs had over 70% of their extent under intense human pressure (human footprint score≥4). Furthermore, a higher proportion of ESs in NRs is subjected to high levels of human pressure and are therefore at risk, particularly soil and water retention. The applied regression model revealed that large NRs are more resilient to human pressure than NRs with the longer establishment. The continuous human footprint increase may hinder the current and future ESs supply. Our analysis shows evidence-based results to promote the mitigation of human pressures in PAs. • The human footprint in the Tibetan Plateau has increased by 22% since 2000. • Human pressure was prevalent across many PAs. • Larger PAs are more resilient to human pressure. • A higher proportion of ESs in PAs is subjected to high levels of human pressure.

Medium‐to‐large mammal diversity and status of forest antelopes in the Sapo National Park, Liberia

AbstractSapo National Park, Liberia's largest protected area, comprises an area of 1804 km2 within the Upper Guinea forest ecosystem, a global biodiversity hot spot. Our baseline camera‐trap study revealed 32 medium‐to‐large mammal species, including ten Upper Guinea forest endemics, within the park. Results show important populations of threatened antelopes, particularly zebra duiker and Jentink's duiker, along with bay duiker, black duiker, Ogilby's duiker and Maxwell's duiker. Water chevrotain and lowland bongo were also recorded. Camera‐trap images of giant and white‐bellied pangolins, western chimpanzee, pygmy hippopotamus and forest elephant collected during this study further confirm the high conservation value of the site. The ecology of the antelope community is investigated, noting the diurnal activity pattern of zebra duiker and the nocturnal activity of Jentink's duiker, in contrast to previous studies. Both species preferred lower altitude primary forest. Ogilby's duiker was the only antelope that showed a preference for higher altitude forest and was found to be more common than the similar‐sized black duiker and bay duiker. Sapo National Park faces many threats including habitat degradation, poaching for bushmeat and animal parts, and illicit gold mining. Commercial logging and agriculture in the buffer and surrounding forested areas threatens connectivity and increases human–wildlife conflict.

High richness of non-volant mammals in a seasonal forest fragment in southeastern Brazil

The seasonal forest formations of the Atlantic Forest are a threatened and poorly known habitat. We present here a list of the non-volant mammals occurring in a 515‑ha forest fragment known as Santa Maria and located in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. Our surveys are based on live trap captures, camera traps, and active searches for footprints, as well as secondary data. We list 29 species of non-volant mammals in the fragment, recorded between 1996 and 2021. One species found in the fragment, Leontopithecus chrysopygus, is globally endangered. Two species are classified as "vulnerable" in the global red list: Myrmecophaga tridactyla, and Tapirus terresris. One species, Panthera onca, is classified as "critically endangered" in São Paulo state. The red howler, Alouatta guariba, was not recorded after 1999 and has probably been extirpated in the fragment. We show that the number of non-volant mammal species in Santa Maria fragment is high, in relation to its size. The fragment is also in a strategic position, between the Morro do Diabo state park and the Black Lion Tamarin Ecological station, the two largest protected areas in the region. Considering its high mammal richness and its possible role as stepping stone for the local fauna, we recommend that the fragment become a protected area.

The slow decline of a Columbia Spotted Frog population in Yellowstone National Park: A cautionary tale from a developed zone within a large protected area

Field research and surveys from the past century have provided a valuable resource for documenting amphibian population declines and investigating their possible causes. In Yellowstone National Park, research from the 1950s provided us with an extraordinary opportunity to investigate a Columbia Spotted Frog population’s decline over time in an area modified by increasing human occupation. Herpetologist F.B. Turner’s investigation (1953–1956) of a Columbia Spotted Frog (Rana luteiventris) population set the foundation for decades of study. In the 1990s, acting on Turner’s observation of an apparently sharp reduction in the number of frogs, we replicated his 1950s mark-recapture study with the goals of determining the extent of the decline and examining its possible causes. We continued annual monitoring through 2020. The population declined by nearly 80% between the mid-1950s and mid-1990s. The number of active breeding sites fell from 3 sites in 1950s, to 2 and then 1 in the 1990s, and none after 2007. The decline was accompanied by significant changes in the 28-hectare study area: a road constructed in the 1970s bisected the study area, headwater springs were developed, and facilities were built in and around the study area to support expanding human uses. Changes in spatial characteristics of the remnant frog population are thought to indicate the impacts of local habitat fragmentation, modification and loss. Here we focus on how the activity ranges and patterns of frog dispersal within the study area shrank to a zone upstream of the highway, prior to the eventual extirpation of the local breeding population. Multiple direct and indirect human-caused changes negatively influenced habitat that supported reproduction, survival, and recruitment. Climate change was not found to provide an adequate explanation of the observed changes. While a breeding population of Columbia Spotted Frogs has persisted next to the historical study area, it has experienced large fluctuations in egg mass production and repeated disease outbreaks in the last 15 years. This long-term case study provides a cautionary tale about shifting baselines and how land use may affect amphibian populations even in protected areas. We recommend extended monitoring for amphibians in developed zones of Yellowstone National Park, as visitation grows and conditions are further altered by infrastructure upgrades as well as by climate change.

Determinants of habitat occupancy and spatial segregation of primates in the central Western Ghats, India.

Primates are among the globally imperiled fauna requiring urgent conservation interventions to protect their habitat. Information on species distribution and factors influencing it are vital to species management and habitat protection. In this study, we assessed habitat occupancy of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus), bonnet macaque (M. radiata), and black-footed gray langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos) that occur in the Kudremukh Wildlife Division, a large protected area network in the central Western Ghats. We examined the influence of habitat variables on the occupancy probability of these primates. We carried out four temporally replicated detection/non-detection surveys to assess detection probability and site occupancy of the primate species. We surveyed 244 sites of 5 Km2, with each site surveyed for 4 days, to assess detection probability and site occupancy. Among the three species, the langur had the highest habitat occupancy estimate (0.66 ± 0.05SE) and the lion-tailed macaque had the lowest estimate (0.28 ± 0.08SE). The habitat occupancy estimate for the bonnet macaque was (0.56 ± 0.05SE). Wet and semi-evergreen forest cover and mean elevation positively influenced the lion-tailed macaque's occurrence. Covariates influencing bonnet macaque's occurrence were plantations, semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests, and non-forest areas. Mean elevation negatively affected its occurrence. Wet evergreen forests and plantations positively influenced the occurrence of the langur. We examined spatial segregation between the species based on their site occupancy. Pairwise comparisons revealed a significant negative association between the bonnet macaque and the other two primates. However, we found a significant positive association between the lion-tailed macaque and the langur. We discuss these results and their implications for conservation of primates in the region. Given the cost-effectiveness of carrying out surveys at large spatial scales, we recommend occupancy surveys for future surveys of forest primates.

Предварительные итоги изучения флоры Нерчуганского заказника (Забайкальский Край)

The purpose of this work is to study the species composition and analysis of the flora of the «Nerchugansky» reserve. The Nerchugansky State Nature Reserve of regional significance was created in the Tungokochensky District of Zabaikalsky Krai, part of the Far Eastern Federal District, with the support of WWF Russia to preserve its natural heritage. This large protected area is situated in the basin of the Amur River – in the valley of the Nercha River and its most important tributary, the Nerchugan. The importance of this PA in terms of environmental safety is explained by the fact that several large placer gold mines operate in the region, which has a signifi cant negative impact on natural systems. The article presents the data of field studies of the terrestrial ecosystem of the reserve. As a result of the collected material, a systematic register of plant flora has been compiled with the allocation of leading families. The results of the chorological analysis are presented and the features of the formation of vegetation cover in this territory are revealed. The zonal and ecological classifications of the vegetation cover are distributed. The phytosozological analysis of the flora of the reserve was carried out. A number of rare and needy plant species have been identifi ed. The analysis of the flora of the first stage of the study showed the presence of 167 species from 112 genera belonging to 40 families, with the selection of the leading ones. Of these, 10 species belonging to 9 genera from 6 families are included in the Red Book of the Zabaikalsky (Trans-Baikal) Krai. This area is characterized by a diversity of forest communities as well as isolated relict areas of mountain steppes with high species diversity. Preservation of intact natural communities and development of mechanisms of sustainable nature management will preserve biodiversity and ecosystem services of the territory.

БАЗИДИАЛЬНЫЕ МАКРОМИЦЕТЫ НА ОСОБО ОХРАНЯЕМЫХ ПРИРОДНЫХ ТЕРРИТОРИЯХ ХАБАРОВСКОГО КРАЯ

To date, the results of studying the species diversity of fungi – basidial macromycetes for five protected areas of the Khabarovsk Territory have been published. 711 species have been recorded in the Bolshekhekhtsirsky Reserve, 245 – in Botchinsky, 133 – in Bureinsky, 367 – in Komsomolsky, and 390 – in Anyui National Park. Rare (protected) species were noted in each of the studied protected areas. An assessment of the degree of knowledge of mycobiots using various approaches showed that if mycological research is continued in any large protected area of the Khabarovsk Territory, there is a significant potential for replenishing the species list and interesting finds, including at the regional and macro regional levels.

Mammals of Cajuru State Forest and surroundings: a neglected but important Protected Area for the Cerrado conservation in the São Paulo state, Brazil

Abstract: The Cerrado has been severely impacted by anthropogenic disturbances, with a tiny proportion of its original extent remaining in its southern portions. In the state of São Paulo, only 7% of this vegetation remains and relatively little is known about the biodiversity of these fragments. To fill this knowledge gap, we inventoried medium and large-sized terrestrial mammals of a neglected region, including a sustainable use protected area, Cajuru State Forest (CSF), adjacent native vegetation remnants protected by the Native Vegetation Protection Law and owned by a paper and cellulose company (Dois Córregos Farm; DCF), and their surroundings. We recorded 20 native mammal species, five of which are endangered with extinction, including the giant anteater, puma, and maned wolf. We found no significant differences in species richness between CSF and DCF but we found higher estimated species richness for the surrounding areas. Besides encompassing a larger and more heterogeneous area, the surrounding area still has a relatively high proportion (>30%) of native vegetation, providing habitat and resources for many species. The estimated mammal species richness for the entire study area was similar to that found in the largest protected area of the Cerrado in São Paulo State, the Jataí Ecological Station and its surroundings. We conclude that our study area still harbors a relatively rich community of large mammals and is important for the conservation of endangered species. This finding is particularly timing since the current State administration is considering to transfer the economic exploitation of CSF to the private sector. We therefore endorse an existing proposal to uplist this protected area, which still lacks a management plan, to a more restricted management category. Besides actions regarding this governmental PA, we argue that it is also important to involve the private sector in a conservation plan for the region.

Season rather than habitat affects lynx survival and risk of mortality in the human‐dominated landscape of southern Sweden

Landscapes are mosaics of habitat associated with different risks and resources, including human activities, which can affect individual survival in wildlife. Different relationships between habitat characteristics and human‐caused and natural mortality can result in attractive sinks. We used individual‐based data from 97 Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx monitored for 160 exposure‐years to link adult survival and the risk of mortality to home range habitat characteristics in the human‐dominated landscape of southern Sweden. Human‐caused mortality (i.e. legal hunting, poaching and vehicle accidents) dominated mortality causes (24 out of 37 deaths). We did not detect any strong effects of habitat characterises explaining the variation in mortality risk in lynx. Although the density of roe deer affects several aspects of lynx ecology, we could not detect any effects of roe deer density on lynx survival, probably because roe deer density was sufficiently high in our study area. Instead, seasonal variation was the main factor influencing mortality in lynx. Mortality was highest during the hunting season for lynx (16 February–31 March), as well as during autumn and winter, probably because lynx poaching occurs opportunistically during the hunting season for moose and roe deer. We did not find any indication that human activity created attractive sinks for lynx, since there were no contrasting patterns between human‐caused and natural mortality in terms of habitat characteristics. One explanation for the limited influence of the home range characteristics may be that lynx in our study died from multiple causes. Therefore, it is less likely that one or a few habitat characteristics could explain the risk of mortality at the home range scale. There is strong evidence that lynx can coexist with humans in multi‐use and human‐dominated landscapes, even without large protected areas, if the management regimes are favourable.

An invasive species erodes the performance of coastal wetland protected areas.

The world has increasingly relied on protected areas (PAs) to rescue highly valued ecosystems from human activities, but whether PAs will fare well with bioinvasions remains unknown. By analyzing three decades of seven of the largest coastal PAs in China, including World Natural Heritage and/or Wetlands of International Importance sites, we show that, although PAs are achieving success in rescuing iconic wetlands and critical shorebird habitats from once widespread reclamation, this success is counteracted by escalating plant invasions. Plant invasions were not only more extensive in PAs than non-PA controls but also undermined PA performance by, without human intervention, irreversibly replacing expansive native wetlands (primarily mudflats) and precluding successional formation of new native marshes. Exotic species are invading PAs globally. This study across large spatiotemporal scales highlights that the consequences of bioinvasions for humanity’s major conservation tool may be more profound, far reaching, and critical for management than currently recognized.

Mixed effect of habitat fragmentation on pollinator visitation rates but not on seed production in renosterveld of South Africa

Habitat fragmentation – in terms of a combination of habitat loss and separation – is a major threat to the renosterveld of the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) of which 85% has been transformed, mostly for agriculture. The effects thereof has not been well studied, in particular in the Eastern inland areas. In this study we seek to understand how habitat patch size influence visitation rate of pollinators of winter flowering plants in the Eastern-Rûens Shale Renosterveld of the Overberg region. We compared pollinator visitation rates to flowers of Relhania garnotii, Clutia sp. nov and Oxalis purpurea between small (0–4.9 ha) and medium (5–15 ha) sized fragments, and compared these to the last large intact protected area, the Haarwegskloof Renosterveld Reserve (>500 ha), termed mainland. We classified degree of isolation among fragments into high (>100 m) and low (<100 m) based on the distance between the outer edge of a fragment to its surrounding fragments and compared pollinator visitation rates between the two levels of isolation. Furthermore, we compared seed set of Bobartia longicyma and Trichodiadema strumosum between fragments and the mainland. We recorded 442 plant-pollinator interactions over a total of 75 h of observation. Pollination rate was significantly higher in fragments compared to the mainland. Within fragments, pollination rate and species richness were significantly higher in medium-sized fragments compared to small fragments. The degree of isolation had a negative effect on pollinator visitation rates among habitat patches, with lower visitation rates and pollinator species richness recorded in fragments with higher degree of isolation, supporting the Habitat Amount Hypothesis (HAH). Plant species exhibited a strong reliance on pollinators for reproduction but were not pollen-limited in either the fragments or mainland. These results indicate that the effect of fragmented habitats do not necessarily affect pollination rates of a certain size of habitat patches, but beyond an undefined threshold, pollinator rates decrease significantly. While in very small fragments ecosystem functions might be declining, in this study insect species have been observed in the smaller fragments that only occurred there, which indicates that heterogeneity of habitat fragments could offer ecological benefits. This highlights the importance of preserving fragments, as an important part of maintaining the remaining renosterveld. Therefore, conservation efforts should be enhanced to also preserve the small fragments that may serve as stepping stones for pollinators in the fragmented renosterveld.

Modeling an aspirational connected network of protected areas across North America.

Connecting protected areas remains an important global conservation strategy in the face of ongoing and future threats to biodiversity. Amid our growing understanding of how species’ distributions will respond to climate change, conservation scientists need to plan for connectivity conservation across entire continents. We modeled multiscale connectivity priorities based on the least human‐modified lands between large protected areas of North America using least‐cost and circuit theory approaches. We first identified priority corridors between large protected areas, then characterized the network’s structure to unveil priority linkages most important for maintaining network‐ and regional‐level connectivity. Agreement between least‐cost corridors and current flow varied throughout North America, reflecting permeable landscape conditions and “pinch points” where potential ecological flows may concentrate between protected areas. Priority network‐level linkages derived from each approach were similar throughout the continental network (e.g., Rocky Mountains and Canadian boreal), but critical linkages that bridged regional protected‐area networks varied. We emphasize the importance of planning for connectivity at continental scales and demonstrate the utility of multiple methods when mapping connectivity priorities across large spatial extents with wide gradients in landscape conditions.

Diversity, distribution, and conservation status of Rubiaceae species in Peñablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape, Luzon, Philippines

Abstract. Biag RA, Alejandro GJD. Diversity, distribution, and conservation status of Rubiaceae species in Peñablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape, Luzon, Philippines. Biodiversitas 22: 3627-3636. Peñablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape (PPLS) is the largest protected area (PA) in the province of Cagayan, Luzon, Philippines. As part of the Sierra Madre Mountain Range and being contiguous with the Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park, there is no doubt that this PA would display species endemism and richness. Hence, botanical surveys through purposive sampling in seven barangays/districts were conducted in the PPLS to determine the species diversity and distribution of Rubiaceae. This study also aims to identify the endemic species and determine their conservation status. Forty-two species of Rubiaceae belonging to 19 genera and 13 tribes were documented in the current study. The most species-rich tribes are Spermacoceae (9 sp.), followed by Psychotrieae (7 sp.), Pavetteae (6 sp.), Naucleae (5 sp.), Ixoreae (4 sp.), Aleisantheae (2 sp.), Mussaendeae (2 sp.), and Vanguerieae (2 sp.). The rest of the tribes, i.e., Augusteae, Coffeeae, Gardenieae, Knoxieae, and Morindeae, are represented by a single species. Minanga, Nabbabalayan and Sisim harbor the most species. Results show that 19 Philippine endemic species are thriving in the PPLS. Of these, four are threatened species; one is near threatened, three being least concern, two as data deficient, and the rest were not evaluated.

Nation-wide assessment of the distribution and population size of the data-deficient nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum).

The study presents the first national assessment of a nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) population, conducted using a combination of transect surveys and baited remote underwater videos (BRUVs). Density of nurse sharks in Belize was found to be higher in reefs than in lagoons, and in the atolls furthest away from the mainland and human settlements. Only large and old protected areas were found to have a positive impact on nurse shark abundance. Absolute abundance of nurse sharks was estimated using distance sampling analysis, giving a total nurse shark population in the range of 3,858 to 14,375 sharks. Thanks to a vast area of suitable habitat for nurse sharks in the country and legislation already in place for the safeguard of the species, Belize could represent an important hotspot for nurse sharks in the Western Atlantic. The data presented here hence offers a baseline for the long-term monitoring of the Belizean nurse shark population and improves our understanding of nurse shark abundance and distribution in the wider Caribbean basin.

Caves of the Low Tatras National Park and Its Neighbourhood as Objects of Speleotourism

Publicly accessible caves are important objects of the modern form of tourism, which is called speleotourism. The caves are important underground geolocalities, which are characterized by a high accumulation of visitors in a specific natural environment. They are usually part of large protected areas - national parks and protected landscape areas. The study deals with accessible caves in the Low Tatras National Park in the central part of Slovakia. In the national park, or rather in its vicinity, there are four caves formed in the carbonate rocks of the geological core of the Low Tatras mountains. In the first part of the study, we presented their basic geographical characteristics in terms of their description as underground geolocalities. The main aim of the study is to analyze the number of visitors to the Demänovská Cave of Freedom, Demänovská Ice Cave, located directly in the national park, Bystrianska Cave located in the buffer zone of the national park and Važecká Cave, located on the northern edge of the studied area. Individual geolocalities were evaluated in terms of 12 criteria (e.g., Variety and attractiveness of cave decoration, Interpretation of the guide, Difficulty of the tour, Amount of ticket price, and others), which were indexed answers of (speleo)tourists from the opinion poll. We conducted the survey during the summer months in the period from 2010 to 2019, and a total of 160 respondents participated. The basic results of a standardized public opinion survey gave us the answer to five research hypotheses. The results confirmed the important potential of caves as specific geolocalities for the development of (underground) speleotourism as a modern form of tourism. Speleotourism is currently an important form of tourism, which is developing in the national parks.

Protected area management in a post-natural world: negotiated governance at the Danish Wadden Sea

National parks and other large protected areas play an increasingly important role in the context of global social and environmental challenges. Nevertheless, they continue to be rooted in local places and cannot be separated out from their socio-cultural and historical context. Protected areas furthermore are increasingly understood to constitute critical sites of struggle whereby the very meanings of nature, landscape, and nature-society relations are up for debate. This paper examines governance arrangements and discursive practices pertaining to the management of the Danish Wadden Sea National Park and reflects on the relationship between pluralist institutional structures and pluralist, relational understandings of nature and landscape.