Large Pore Research Articles

Utilizing Differences in Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Pore Size Distributions for Enhanced Rock Quality Evaluation: A Winland-Style Approach with Physical Meaning

Pore structure is a fundamental parameter in determining the hydrocarbon storage capacity and flow characteristics of a reservoir. Mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) are two commonly utilized techniques for characterizing rock pore structures. However, current studies indicate that disparities in testing methodologies due to distinct physical characteristics lead to a partial misalignment in pore size distributions. We conducted MICP (dynamic) and NMR (static) experiments on eight tight sandstone and eight shale samples and proposed a method to utilize information from the differences in MICP and NMR pore size distributions, aiming to enhance the accuracy of rock quality analysis. We observed that in rock cores where large pores are interconnected with smaller pore throats, MICP tends to overestimate the proportion of these smaller pores and underestimate the larger ones. Furthermore, we integrated information from both dynamic and static experimental processes based on physical significance and found that the fitting accuracy of the newly proposed method is superior to the Winland r35 equation. Compared to the Winland r35 equation, our new method significantly improves fitting accuracy, increasing the R-squared value from 0.46 to 0.93 in sandstones and from 0.80 to 0.87 in shales. This represents a potential high-precision, comprehensive tool for rock quality analysis, offering a new perspective for an in-depth understanding of rock properties.

Improvement of Solder Joint Shear Strength under Formic Acid Atmosphere at A Low Temperature.

With the continuous reduction of chip size, fluxless soldering has brought attention to high-density, three-dimensional packaging. Although fluxless soldering technology with formic acid (FA) atmosphere has been presented, few studies have examined the effect of the Pt catalytic, preheating time, and soldering pad on FA soldering for the Sn-58Bi solder. The results have shown that the Pt catalytic can promote oxidation-reduction and the formation of a large pore in the Sn-58Bi/Cu solder joint, which causes a decrease in shear strength. ENIG (electroless nickel immersion gold) improves soldering strength. The shear strength of Sn-58Bi/ENIG increases under the Pt catalytic FA atmosphere process due to the isolation of the Au layer on ENIG. The Au layer protects metal from corrosion and provides a good contact surface for the Sn-58Bi solder. The shear strength of the Sn-58Bi/ENIG joints under a Pt catalytic atmosphere improved by 44.7% compared to using a Cu pad. These findings reveal the improvement of the shear strength of solder joints bonded at low temperatures under the FA atmosphere.

Effect of the surface-area-to-volume ratio on dissolution and deterioration of acid-corroded sandstone

This study investigates the impact of hydro-chemical action on the deterioration of physical and mechanical properties of rock, with a specific focus on sandstone subjected to HCl, and H2SO4 solutions with pH values of 2 and 5. The research explores the role of the surface-area-to-volume (SATV) ratios of 0.65 and 0.70 in influencing the dissolution and deterioration of sandstone. A chemical kinetic model is developed to explore the diffusion-dissolution mechanism. Following acid corrosion, the porosity of sandstone increases, marked by a decline in small pores (r ≤ 1 μm) and an increase in medium (1 μm < r < 10 μm) and large pores (r ≥ 10 μm). Furthermore, uniaxial compression tests reveal a reduction in peak strength and elastic modulus, an increase in peak strain, diminished brittleness, and enhanced ductility. The study underscores the substantial influence of the SATV ratio, particularly in the case of low pH values in HCl solutions. Following 150 days of corrosion by pH = 2 HCl solution under a SATV ratio of 0.70, the peak stress and elastic modulus decreased by 52.845% and 92.712%, and peak strain increased by 386.186%. The acid-rock reaction is characterized by diffusion and dissolution, with parameters exhibiting a negative correlation with the SATV ratio and a positive correlation with the pH value of solutions. The diffusion is more affected by the SATV ratio rather than the dissolution. The insights derived from this research have implications for the theoretical foundation of safety assessments and disaster prevention in practical engineering scenarios under acidic environments.

Mechanical performances, chloride permeability, and microstructure of wollastonite microfiber reinforced cement-based composite incorporated with zeolite powder

Wollastonite microfiber (WM) with a unique fiber structure and zeolite powder (ZP) with a high pozzolanic effect can improve the performances of cement-based composite owing to the same calcium silicate system. This study aimed to analyze the effects of WM and ZP on the properties of cement-based composite by compressive test, flexural test, shear test, rapid chloride migration (RCM) test, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), mercury intrusion porosimetery (MIP) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Results showed that utilizing WM and ZP was found to be beneficial for improving mechanical performances and impermeability. WM had a more significant effect on enhancing flexural and shear properties, which can be attributed to the fact that the WM as a fibrous structure could provide skeleton support and bridging crack resistance in the matrix, and an addition of 5% WM (by mass) in the matrix could increase the 60-day flexural strength, shear strength and tensile strength by 24%, 13% and 4%. Additionally, ZP had a more significant impact on improving the late compressive strength and chloride permeability because of the particle filling effect and pozzolanic effect. The pozzolanic ingredient (such as active SiO2 and Al2O3) in ZP can take secondary hydration reaction with Ca(OH)2 to produce C–S(A)-H, this can refine the pore size and reduce the porosity, especially for the large pore.

Optimal selection of inversion method for gas-adsorption pore characterization of shales in Wufeng and Longmaxi Formation, Sichuan Basin

The pore space in gas shale spans multiple scales, ranging from nanometers to micrometers with an extremely complex structure and strong microscopic heterogeneity. Existing low-temperature gas adsorption (LTGA) pore size distribution (PSD) analysis models are based on the assumption of a one-dimensional tubular model and there is a lack of sufficient basis for selecting the most appropriate inversion model among the various types available. In this study, a comprehensive characterization of numerous samples from the Wufeng and Longmaxi Formation in the southern Sichuan Basin was conducted using different methods and inversion models. Based on multiple dimensions, such as fitting errors, the correlation between different methods including low-temperature CO2 adsorption (LTCA), nitrogen adsorption (LTNA), and large-scale mosaic Scanning Electron Microscopy (LAM-SEM), the most suitable one-dimensional models for LTCA and LTNA PSD analysis for the studied shale samples are determined. The simulation of gas condensation processes on LAM-SEM images yielded pore volume (PV) in the range of 32–48 nm comparable to the PV characterized by LTNA. Furthermore, the differences observed in PSDs between the gas condensation simulation procedure and the equivalent circular area diameter method indicate that irregular corner regions within larger pores are attributed to the volume of smaller-sized pores during gas adsorption characterization. It is revealed that the correlation between stitched surface area (SA) and maximum methane adsorption is stronger than individual characterizations, indicating that both micropores and mesopores contribute significantly to adsorption, and both characterization methods need to be employed to obtain SSA that influences methane adsorption. The research findings are helpful to the improvement of the multi-scale pore characterization level and evaluation of shale reservoirs.

Preparation and Performance Study of Alkali-active Gypsum Mixture System

To improve the mechanical properties and water resistance of gypsum specimens, thus solving the pollution problem due to the accumulation of flue gas desulfurization gypsum (FGD gypsum), etc. The article utilizes flue gas desulfurization gypsum, gypsum citrate, and mineral powder as the main raw materials under a fixed ratio. The Alkali-activation gypsum-based cementitious material (Alkali-activation GM-S95 system) was obtained by modifying it with 0-5% Na(OH) and Ca(OH)2 alkaline admixtures, and the mechanical properties and water resistance of the Alkali-activation GM-S95 system were thoroughly investigated. The structural characteristics of the Alkali-activation GM-S95 system specimens were investigated using XRD, TG, SEM and LF-NMR techniques to explore their interactions. The results showed that the compressive strength of the Alkali-activation GM-S95 system was significantly increased to 26 MPa when 4% Ca(OH)2 was added alone, and the water absorption was decreased to 12.5%.The addition of 4% Ca(OH)2 caused the crystals of gypsum dihydrate to be thicker and denser, and AFT and C-S-H gels were produced, which were attached around the crystals of gypsum dihydrate. The addition of different admixtures can reduce the proportion of large pores and further fill the crystal structure. In summary, the addition of 4% Ca(OH)2 can improve the compressive strength and water resistance of the samples of Alkali-activation GM-S95 system, thus laying a solid foundation for the comprehensive utilization of flue gas desulfurization gypsum.

Effect of vehicle-induced vibration on the strength, nano-mechanical properties, and microstructural characteristics of ultra-high-performance concrete during hardening process

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) has been rapidly accepted in accelerating bridge construction attributed to its superior workability and mechanical performance. However, the unavoidable vehicle-induced vibration in construction site may cause the performance degradation of UHPC, and the influencing mechanisms have not been well-documented. In this study, the effects of various vibration parameters (amplitudes, frequencies, and phases) on the macroscopic properties, nano-mechanical properties and microstructure evolution of unhardened UHPC were investigated. Results demonstrated that the microstructural evolution and strength development of UHPC differed at different introduced vibration energy, although the vibration during the hardening process can disperse the unhydrated cement particles, decrease the Ca/Si values and form additional C–S–H gels. The low-energy vibration (low-amplitude vibration and vibration before initial setting) refined the pore structure and optimized the fiber orientation in UHPC, leading to a volume increase of gel nano-pores (<10 nm) and a higher fiber orientation coefficient (ηθ). This improvement results in an increase in its compressive and flexural strength by 0.6%–3.8% and 6.8%–24.5%, respectively. In contrast, however, the high-energy vibration (high-amplitude vibration and vibration after initial setting) coarsened the large capillary pores (100–5000 nm) and macro-pores macro-pores (>5000 nm). Furthermore, the interaction (adhesion and friction) between the aggregate and matrix in UHPC was also disrupted under this condition, as confirmed by SEM. This leads to the evolution of interfacial transition zone (ITZ) in UHPC from a dense framework to a framework with microcracks.

Disjoining Pressure Decay Length in Room-Temperature Ionic Liquids: A Molecular Simulation Study.

We present all-atom molecular simulations to investigate the behavior of 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate ([EMIM][BF4]) in negatively charged carbon nanopores of different widths (h = 5÷15 nm) and lengths (l = 4÷10 nm). The goal of our study was to determine how the disjoining pressure varies as a function of the pore width at different lengths and to understand the influence of edge effects. Our results show that the edge effect decreases as the pore length increases. Using an exponential function, we can approximate the disjoining pressure at large pore widths and use this approximation to estimate the decay length that can correlate with the electrostatic screening length. The results agreed well with those of previous experimental studies.

Pore structure characterization of sandstone under different water invasion cycles using micro-CT

The meso-structural changes of rocks during repeated cycles of water invasion are the fundamental cause of macroscopic physical property damage. In this paper, based on the computed tomography scan images of rock samples under different numbers of water invasion cycles, a three-dimensional pore network model was constructed to analyze the changes in pore structure under the action of water invasion. The damage variable was introduced to quantitatively characterize the parameter damage of each pore and reveal the evolution of rock meso-damage. The results show that 81% of the pore radius is less than 10 μm under 0 water invasion cycles and that 76% of the pore radiuses are less than 10 μm after 10 water invasion cycles. After 10 water invasion cycles, the peak range of the pore radius distribution enlarged from the initial range of 2–4 μm to that of 4–6 μm and the proportion of pore throats with a radius less than 10 μm decreased from an initial 82–72%. With an increase of water invasion cycles, the proportion of large pores increased and the connectivity among pores enhances gradually. The damage variable of each pore parameter changed the most during 2–5 water invasion cycles. After 10 water invasion cycles, the maximum degree of damage that the pore volume reached was up to 41.44% and the minimum degree of damage of the pore coordination number was 5.80%. The test results helped to reveal the pore structure changes and the damage of rock samples during water invasion cycles.

Assessment of the proteome profile of decellularized human amniotic membrane and its biocompatibility with umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells.

Extracellular matrix-based bio-scaffolds are useful for tissue engineering as they retain the unique structural, mechanical, and physiological microenvironment of the tissue thus facilitating cellular attachment and matrix activities. However, considering its potential, a comprehensive understanding of the protein profile remains elusive. Herein, we evaluate the impact of decellularization on the human amniotic membrane (hAM) based on its proteome profile, physicochemical features, as well as the attachment, viability, and proliferation of umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSC). Proteome profiles of decellularized hAM (D-hAM) were compared with hAM, and gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis was performed. Proteomic data revealed that D-hAM retained a total of 249 proteins, predominantly comprised of extracellular matrix proteins including collagens (collagen I, collagen IV, collagen VI, collagen VII, and collagen XII), proteoglycans (biglycan, decorin, lumican, mimecan, and versican), glycoproteins (dermatopontin, fibrinogen, fibrillin, laminin, and vitronectin), and growth factors including transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) while eliminated most of the intracellular proteins. Scanning electron microscopy was used to analyze the epithelial and basal surfaces of D-hAM. The D-hAM displayed variability in fibril morphology and porosity as compared with hAM, showing loosely packed collagen fibers and prominent large pore areas on the basal side of D-hAM. Both sides of D-hAM supported the growth and proliferation of hUC-MSC. Comparative investigations, however, demonstrated that the basal side of D-hAM displayed higher hUC-MSC proliferation than the epithelial side. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the micro-environmental differences between the two sides of D-hAM while optimizing cell-based therapeutic applications.

Lateral line system diversification during the early stages of ecological speciation in cichlid fish

BackgroundThe mechanosensory lateral line system is an important sensory modality in fishes, informing multiple behaviours related to survival including finding food and navigating in dark environments. Given its ecological importance, we may expect lateral line morphology to be under disruptive selection early in the ecological speciation process. Here we quantify the lateral line system morphology of two ecomorphs of the cichlid fish Astatotilapia calliptera in crater Lake Masoko that have diverged from common ancestry within the past 1,000 years.ResultsBased on geometric morphometric analyses of CT scans, we show that the zooplanktivorous benthic ecomorph that dominates the deeper waters of the lake has large cranial lateral line canal pores, relative to those of the nearshore invertebrate-feeding littoral ecomorph found in the shallower waters. In contrast, fluorescence imaging revealed no evidence for divergence between ecomorphs in the number of either superficial or canal neuromasts. We illustrate the magnitude of the variation we observe in Lake Masoko A. calliptera in the context of the neighbouring Lake Malawi mega-radiation that comprises over 700 species.ConclusionsThese results provide the first evidence of divergence in this often-overlooked sensory modality in the early stages of ecological speciation, suggesting that it may have a role in the broader adaptive radiation process.

Cooling Damage Characterization and Chemical-Enhanced Oil Recovery in Low-Permeable and High-Waxy Oil Reservoirs

The well productivity of high-waxy reservoirs is highly influenced by temperature changes. A decrease in temperature can cause the precipitation of wax from the crude oil, leading to a decrease in the formation’s drainage capacity and a drop in oil production. In this study, the wax precipitation of crude oil is characterized by rheological properties tests and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermal analysis. The wax damage characteristics of cores and the relative permeability curves at different temperatures were investigated through coreflood experiments. Furthermore, nanoemulsion is selected as a chemical agent for injection fluid. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) scanning technique is used to investigate the effects of oil recovery enhancement at different pores by increasing temperature and adding nanoemulsion. By comparing the changes in T2 spectra and the distribution pattern of residual oil before and after liquid injection, the results have shown that both increasing temperature and adding nanoemulsion have a significant effect on oil recovery. The improvement of micropores is less pronounced compared to macropores. The produced oil mainly comes from the large pores. When the temperature is lower than the crude oil dewaxing point temperature, there is a serious dewaxing plugging phenomenon in the pores. Additionally, by observing the pattern of residual oil distribution at the end of the NMR online drive, it is hereby classified into wax deposition retention type, weak water washing retention type, and immobilized type, each with its own distinct characteristics. Wettability alteration and interfacial tension reduction can help to improve the drainage capacity of high-wax oil reservoirs, which is the main mechanism of nanoemulsion for enhanced oil recovery. These findings are highly valuable for enhancing the comprehension of the impact of highly waxed crude oils on drainage capacity and the ultimate oil recovery rate, particularly in relation to wax precipitation deposition.

Additive technology for forming multi-material samples of “stainless steel – high-entropy alloys” system

The Metal Paste Deposition (MPD) method offers several advantages in producing multi-materials compared to other additive technologies. While there have been studies conducted on multi-material production using this method, they are limited. Hence, a significant objective is to expand the research scope concerning multi-materials produced through the MPD method. This study aimed to examine samples of multi-material systems comprising 316L steel with CoCrFeMnNiW0.25 and 316L steel with CrMoNbWV obtained from metal paste. The investigation involved forming multi-material samples and analyzing the porosity, microstructure, phase composition, and hardness of the 316L steel metal paste after sintering. The findings lead to several conclusions: when forming multi-material samples of the 316L–CoCrFeMnNiW0.25 system, there is no necessity to create a transition zone using mixed 316L steel and CoCrFeMnNiW0.25 powders, as these alloys mix strongly within it. However, in the 316L–CrMoNbWV system, forming a transition zone of mixed powders is necessary to mitigate the effects of uneven shrinkage. Altering the sintering modes for multi-material samples of the 316L–CoCrFeMnNiW0.25 system is recommended; the temperature should be reduced by 30–45 °C compared to the sintering modes for 316L steel. After sintering the metal paste derived from 316L steel, the resulting sample exhibits large and small spherical pores. To minimize these defects, degassing can be employed. Additionally, reducing porosity can be achieved through hot isostatic pressing post-sintering. The microstructure following the sintering of the metal paste from 316L steel consists of coarse austenite grains with minimal ferrite accumulation at the grain interface.

Molecular engineering toward large pore-sized covalent organic frameworks

In recent years, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) as designable crystalline porous polymers have attracted widespread attention because of their tunable structures and functionalities. In particular, the unique characteristics of COFs, such as readily controllable pore size, high surface area, editable pore surface environment, and exceptional chemical stability, provide a structural basis for loading large-sized organic, inorganic, and biological molecules for hetero-catalysis, energy storage, and other applications. In this review, we discuss state-of-the-art strategies for the structural design and synthesis, properties, and functionalities of large pore size two-dimensional and three-dimensional COFs, spotlighting recent breakthrough achievements and remarkable progress to guide further efforts in this field.

Development of porous materials via protein/polysaccharides/polyphenols nanoparticles stabilized Pickering high internal phase emulsions for adsorption of Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions

The porous materials (PM) were prepared by the Pickering high internal phase emulsion (PHIPE) template. Firstly, the nanoparticles named as ZHMNPs or MZHMNPs were fabricated based on zein, Hohenbuehelia serotina polysaccharides and Malus baccata (Linn.) Borkh polyphenols without or with Maillard reaction, the average particle sizes and zeta potentials of which were distributed in a range of 718.1–979.4 nm and −21.6–25.2 mV. ZHMNPs possessed the relatively uniform spherical morphology, while MZHMNPs were irregular in shape. With ZHMNPs or MZHMNPs serving as the stabilizers, the PHIPEs were prepared, and exhibited the good viscoelasticity and excellent storage and freeze–thaw stabilities. Based on above PHIPEs template, the constructed PM possessed the large specific surface area and uniform pore structure. Through the investigations of adsorption performances, PM showed the outstanding adsorption capacities on Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions regardless of dissolving in deionized water or simulated gastrointestinal digestive fluid. Furthermore, the results also showed that the pH, temperature and adsorbent dosage had certain impacts on the adsorption performances of PM on Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions.

Construction of gradient SA-TiO2 hydrogel coated PVDF-g-IL fibre membranes with high hydrophilicity and self-cleaning for the efficient separation of oil-water emulsion and dye wastewater

The industrial wastewater filtered by water treatment membranes is very complex in practical applications, therefore, it is a challenge to prepare a membrane with large pore size and high flux that can efficiently separate various wastewater containing pollutants of different scales. To solve this problem, an SA-TiO2 hydrogel-coated PVDF-g-IL composite fibre membrane with super hydrophilicity, anti-pollution, and pH-responsive self-cleaning properties has been designed and prepared by electrostatic spinning and layer-by-layer coating techniques in the present work. The super hydrophilic gel layer on the surface gives the composite membrane efficient separation capability while maintaining rapid passage of the aqueous phase; the underlying PVDF-g-IL fibre membrane is positively charged and removes not only anionic/cationic pollutants by electrostatic repulsion or attraction but also creates an ionic bond with oppositely assigned SA so that the gel layer tightly bond to the base membrane. The PVDF-g-IL@SA-TiO2 membrane achieves stable and efficient separation of oil-water emulsions and dye wastewaters with a high filtration flux while retaining a retention rate higher than ∼95%. After multiple self-cleaning cycles, the ultra-thin gel layer still offers satisfactory durability with ≈100% flux recovery. This study provides a promising new strategy for designing efficient multiple contaminant separation and simpler self-cleaning membranes.

Surfactant-free synthesis of mesoporous silica materials (Using tetraetylorthosilicate and oleic acid): Preparation, characterization, and catalytic applications

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), one of the important porous materials, have attracted enormous interest due to their exceptional physical and chemical properties. The present study describes a non-surfactant templating route to mesoporous silica materials with large surface areas (617 m2 g−1) and pore volumes (0.6374 cm3 g−1) using the oleic acid template that plays two important roles: as a catalyst for hydrolysis of silicon alkoxide and well-defined three-dimensional arrangement of silica nanospheres (as a natural). The silica was calcined and studied using several techniques such as FE-SEM, FT-IR, XRD, TEM, and BET. Afterward, the surfaces of the mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) were modified and used as a catalyst for synthesizing pyrazolopyranopyrimidines and pyrido[2,3-d:6,5-d]dipyrimidines.

Cobalt nanoparticles supported on nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes for the efficient oxygen reduction reaction in Mg-air battery

Fabricating the non-precious-metal catalyst with desirable catalytic performance towards oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) is essential for Mg-air battery that adopts neutral brine electrolyte. However, the classic metal-nitrogen-carbon materials with strong ORR catalytic activity in alkaline solution usually display inferior performance than platinum-based catalysts in neutral environment. Herein, we construct a hybrid catalyst composed of cobalt nanoparticles and nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes, based on pyrolyzing the mixture of melamine, pyrazole, hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide, and 2-methylimidazole chelated with Co2+ and Zn2+ ions. This catalyst possesses abundant ORR catalytic active sites and mesoporous structure with large pore volume, which can result in the superior performance of Mg-air battery than that using Pt/C catalyst. Furthermore, its ORR catalytic mechanism is unraveled according to microstructure characterization and electrochemical response.

Optimization of the Porous Structure of Carbon Electrodes for Hybrid Supercapacitors with a Redox Electrolyte Based on Potassium Bromide

This work investigates the electrochemical behavior of hybrid supercapacitors with carbon-based electrodes of different porosity using 5M NaNO3 + 0.5M KBr electrolyte to optimize energy storage processes. Three types of carbon materials were synthesized: activated carbon from rice husk (RH) with a specific surface area of ~2300 m2/g and pore size &lt; 1 nm, and templated carbons from magnesium citrate (MP-8) and glucose with SiO2 as a template (G7), having surface areas of 1976 and 1320 m2/g and pore sizes of 3.4 and 7 nm, respectively. The microporous structure of activated carbon (AC) obtained from RH shows limitations in the diffusion of electrolyte ions, which affects the charge-discharge kinetics. In contrast, the larger mesoporous structures of templated carbons promoted better adsorption and ion transport, significantly affecting the dynamics of redox reactions. The RH/MP-8 hybrid capacitor, combining high surface area and large pore size, demonstrated a 54% increase in specific capacitance, 128% increase in specific energy and 51% increase in energy efficiency at high current densities of 5 A/g, comparing to the symmetric RH/RH hybrid capacitor. This study highlights the critical importance of the relationship between electrode pore structure and electrolyte composition for optimizing supercapacitor performance, which provides valuable information for the development of efficient energy storage technologies.

Electrospun Polycaprolactone Membranes Expanded with Chitosan Granules for Cell Infiltration.

The small pore size of electrospun membranes prevents their use as three-dimensional scaffolds. In this work, we produced polycaprolactone (PCL) electrospun fibrous membranes with expanded pores by incorporating chitosan (CS) granules into the PCL solution. Scanning electron microscopy images confirmed the presence of the CS granules embedded in the PCL fibers, creating an open structure. Tensile testing results showed that the addition of CS decreased both Young's modulus and the yield stress, but co-electrospun membranes (PCL fibers blended with CS-containing PCL fibers) exhibited higher values compared to single electrospun membranes (CS-containing PCL fibers). Human fibroblasts adhered to and proliferated on all scaffolds. Nuclear staining revealed that cells populated the entire scaffold when CS granules were present, while in PCL membranes, cells were mostly limited to the surface due to the small pore size. Overall, our findings demonstrate that electrospun membranes containing CS granules have sufficiently large pores to facilitate fibroblast infiltration without compromising the mechanical stability of the structure.