Large Number Of Viruses Research Articles

Colchicine-The Divine Medicine against COVID-19.

Colchicine has a number of effects that suggest it may be useful in the treatment of COVID-19. Myeloid cells are a major source of dysregulated inflammation in COVID-19. The hyperactivation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the subsequent cytokine storm take place precisely inside them and can lead to multiorgan damage and death. NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition has been assessed at micromolar colchicine concentrations which cannot be achieved in serum. However, colchicine has remarkable ability to accumulate intensively in leukocytes, where the cytokine storm is generated. Over 50 observational studies and randomized clinical trials, small randomized non-controlled trials, and retrospective cohort studies were initiated to test its healing effect in vivo, leading to conflicting, rather disappointing results. The WHO gives a "Strong recommendation against" the use of colchicine for COVID-19 treatment. This is because low doses of colchicine are always used, where the concentrations required to inhibit the NLRP3 inflammasome in leukocytes cannot be reached. Considering this, from March 2020, we started the administration of higher doses of colchicine. Our assumption was that a safe increase in colchicine doses to reach micromolar concentrations in leukocytes will result in NLRP3 inflammasome/cytokine storm inhibition. We demonstrated that in 785 inpatients treated with increasing doses of colchicine, mortality fell between two and seven times. Our data, including a large number of COVID-19 outpatients, showed that nearly 100% of the patients treated with this therapeutic regimen escaped hospitalization. In addition, post-COVID-19 symptoms in those treated with colchicine were significantly rarer. As a large number of viruses can overactivate the NLRP3 inflammasome (like seasonal influenza), we are convinced that higher colchicine doses would be useful in these cases as well.

Chemical Nature of Metals and Metal-Based Materials in Inactivation of Viruses.

In response to the enormous threat to human survival and development caused by the large number of viruses, it is necessary to strengthen the defense against and elimination of viruses. Metallic materials have been used against viruses for thousands of years due to their broad-spectrum antiviral properties, wide sources and excellent physicochemical properties; in particular, metal nanoparticles have advanced biomedical research. However, researchers in different fields hold dissimilar views on the antiviral mechanisms, which has slowed down the antiviral application of metal nanoparticles. As such, this review begins with an exhaustive compilation of previously published work on the antiviral capacity of metal nanoparticles and other materials. Afterwards, the discussion is centered on the antiviral mechanisms of metal nanoparticles at the biological and physicochemical levels. Emphasis is placed on the fact that the strong reducibility of metal nanoparticles may be the main reason for their efficient inactivation of viruses. We hope that this review will benefit the promotion of metal nanoparticles in the antiviral field and expedite the construction of a barrier between humans and viruses.

Effective Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus by Resonance Medicine

At the same time, cholecystitis is diagnosed, possibly gallstones, pyelonephritis, and kidney stones. As a rule, chlamydia, a large number of viruses, fungi, helminths are detected. All this is entered into the prescription for the preparation of the drug for treatment.

Research progress on etiologic diagnosis of ocular viral diseases

A large number of viruses have been found to be associated with ocular diseases, including human adenovirus, human herpesvirus (HHV), human T lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1), and newly emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This group of diseases is prone to be misdiagnosed or missed diagnosis, resulting in serious tissue and visual damage. Etiological diagnosis is a powerful auxiliary mean to diagnose the ocular diseases associated with human adenovirus, herpes simplex virus 1 and varicella-zoster virus, and it provides the leading diagnosis evidence of infections with herpes simplex virus 2, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, HHV-6/7, HHV-8, HTLV-1 and SARS-CoV-2. Virus isolation, immunoassay and genetic diagnosis are usually used for etiologic diagnosis. For genetic diagnosis, the PCR technique is the most important approach because of its advantages of rapid detection, convenient operation, high sensitivity and high specificity.

Possible Effect of Aromatic Plants and Essential Oils against COVID-19: Review of Their Antiviral Activity

Aim: Till now, no specific treatment is available for COVID-19. This work is carried out with the aim of verifying in the literature the antiviral properties of aromatic plants and essential oils that can justify their use against the causative agent of COVID-19, SARS-CoV-2.
 Methodology: The literature review was based mainly on the usual databases such as PubMed, PubMed Central., Science Direct, SCIELO, DOAJ, Science alert, Semantic scholar and Google scholar.
 Results: A survey of literature reveals that aromatic plants and their essential oils are active against a large number of viruses (Herpes virus-1, Herpes virus-2, HIV, Adeno virus, Hepatite B Virus, Enterovirus 71, JUNV, etc.) and even against SARS-CoV-1 which has 96% of the same genetic background with SARS-CoV-2.
 Conclusion: Aromatic plants and their essential oils exhibit high antiviral activities against several types of viruses. This evidence stemming from several experimental studies means that some compounds derived from essential oils could act as inhibitors of COVID-19.
 Molecular docking investigations and pharmacoinformatics of some compounds derived from essential oils with SARS-CoV-2 protease are in progress to identify the potential inhibitors of the virus.

Viral Abundance and Diversity of Production Fluids in Oil Reservoirs.

Viruses are widely distributed in various ecosystems and have important impacts on microbial evolution, community structure and function and nutrient cycling in the environment. Viral abundance, diversity and distribution are important for a better understanding of ecosystem functioning and have often been investigated in marine, soil, and other environments. Though microbes have proven useful in oil recovery under extreme conditions, little is known about virus community dynamics in such systems. In this study, injection water and production fluids were sampled in two blocks of the Daqing oilfield limited company where water flooding and microbial flooding were continuously used to improve oil recovery. Virus-like particles (VLPs) and bacteria in these samples were extracted and enumerated with epifluorescence microscopy, and viromes of these samples were also sequenced with Illumina Hiseq PE150. The results showed that a large number of viruses existed in the oil reservoir, and VLPs abundance of production wells was 3.9 ± 0.7 × 108 mL−1 and virus to bacteria ratio (VBR) was 6.6 ± 1.1 during water flooding. Compared with water flooding, the production wells of microbial flooding had relative lower VLPs abundance (3.3 ± 0.3 × 108 mL−1) but higher VBR (7.9 ± 2.2). Assembled viral contigs were mapped to an in-house virus reference data separate from the GenBank non-redundant nucleotide (NT) database, and the sequences annotated as virus accounted for 35.34 and 55.04% of total sequences in samples of water flooding and microbial flooding, respectively. In water flooding, 7 and 6 viral families were identified in the injection and production wells, respectively. In microbial flooding, 6 viral families were identified in the injection and production wells. The total number of identified viral species in the injection well was higher than that in the production wells for both water flooding and microbial flooding. The Shannon diversity index was higher in the production well of water flooding than in the production well of microbial flooding. These results show that viruses are very abundant and diverse in the oil reservoir’s ecosystem, and future efforts are needed to reveal the potential function of viral communities in this extreme environment.

Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 induced cardiac injury from the perspective of the virus

Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 induced cardiac injury from the perspective of the virus

An Overview of Alternative Herbal Methods Applied in Cases of In Seasonal Common Cold Caused by Viruses

The common cold caused by viruses is an infectious upper respiratory tract disease. A large number of viruses that cause the disease have been identified. Coronavirüs, parainfluenza respiratory synctial virus (RSV), influenza, rhinoviruses are mostly known as common cold-causing viruses. Often the common cold is self-limiting and short-term disease. But, when it is evaluated in terms of quality of life and job losses, the magnitude of its effect is equivalent to chronic diseases. The lack of precise treatment and the desire to recover as soon as well has led to an increase in the orientation towards complementary alternative medicine practices besides drug treatments. One of the complementary alternative medicine practices is herbal treatment methods. In this study, herbal treatment methods used in the case of colds and their frequency of use were investigated. For this purpose, 298 students who were chosen randomly from the students studying in the Faculty of Health Sciences and who agreed to participate in the study were selected as the sample of the study. The reasons for using of the herbal products in colds by students and the levels of their use were tried to be determined. Keywords: The common cold, Herbal treatment, Colds, Complementary alternative medicine DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/77-02 Publication date: July 31 st 2020

Plant Pathogens which Threaten Food Security: Viruses of Chickpea and Other Cool Season Legumes in West Asia and North Africa

West Asia and North Africa (WANA) and the Indian sub-continent are regions of major production of chickpea, faba bean and lentil, where these crops represent a major source of protein in the diet of the population. These crops are attacked by a large number of viruses, the most economically important among them being which cause stunting and yellowing symptoms together with poor or no pod setting. Our knowledge of the identity of these viruses improved significantly over the past three decades because of the advances in molecular diagnostics. At present, there are 12 viruses in chickpea and 6 in faba bean that are insect transmitted in the persistent manner, cause stunting and yellowing symptoms, and the number is increasing. Virus disease management involving a combination of control measures is the best practical strategy to reduce virus disease levels, and consequently increase productivity of grain legume crops. Research that leads to the design of most appropriate control strategies is needed for each grain legume producing region in WANA countries and within each country.

Burden of Influenza in Patients visiting Emergency Department for Treatment of Influenza Like Illness at THQ Hospital Shujabad, Pakistan

Background: Viral infection of the respiratory tract is a common illness syndrome in humans. Human respiratory tract is infected by large number of viruses. Self-constraining infections are caused by most of them e.g. normal chilly and intense bronchitis. Seriousness of illness relies upon specific infection and furthermore on host factors. Flu influences all age gatherings; an extensive number of bleakness and mortality happens in high hazard gathering e.g. elderly patients with chronic disease.
 Methodology: The research was completed in Shujabad, Multan. A prospective study was conducted for a period of three months in order to define burden of flu among cases of influenza-like illness as they visited emergency department of the THQ Hospital Shujabad, Multan. Data was analyzed by using SPSS software with 95% confidence interval. Chi-square test was used to measure the association of risk factors. CI (cumulative incidence) of disease (influenza) was calculated by standard formula.
 Results: There were 16332 patients visited emergency department of the hospital for the treatment different health issues. Total numbers of influenza like illness patients enrolled in current study were 244 and cumulative incidence was calculated to be 1.49%. Among these 244 ILI patients, 12 patients were hospitalized in the emergency department for advance respiratory care which was 4.9% of the ILI patients and 3 patients died among the 12 hospitalized patients due to the severe respiratory attack which was (1.2%) of ILI while rest of the patients were discharged as they were stable. All of the 244 ILI patient samples were sent to the laboratory for PCR and results was showing that 35 were influenza positive which was 14.3% of the ILI cases presented in emergency department of the hospital.
 Conclusion: It was concluded that Influenza virus strains are circulating in general public of the Tehsil Shujabad, District Multan. This study therefore indorses the need for continuous surveillance of influenza as an important public-health issue. It also raises the question of rational vaccination policy for influenza. Finally, there is the question of clinical diagnosis where specific treatment/antiviral treatment is available.

Heparanase, Heparan Sulfate and Viral Infection.

The story of heparanase (HPSE) in viral infection has roots in the longstanding connection between heparan sulfate (HS) and a large number of viruses. As a major viral attachment and entry receptor present on the cell surface, HS serves as the first point of contact between a virus particle and its target host cell. Likewise, direct regulation of HS levels on the cell surface by HPSE enzymatic activity dictates the extent of virus release after replication has occurred. Additionally, virus-induced HPSE activation and nuclear translocation results in higher expression of pro-inflammatory factors and delayed wound healing leading to worsened disease. In this chapter, using herpes simplex virus (HSV) as a prototype virus we provide a brief synopsis of important stages in viral infection, describe how these processes are governed by HS and HPSE, and discuss the recent discoveries that designate HPSE as a major host virulence factor and driver of pathogenesis for several different viruses.

Accelerated cancer aggressiveness by viral oncomodulation: New targets and newer natural treatments for cancer control and treatment.

An infectious etiology for a number of cancers has been entertained for over 100 years and modern studies have confirmed that a number of viruses are linked to cancer induction. While a large number of viruses have been demonstrated in a number of types of cancers, most such findings have been dismissed in the past as opportunistic infections, especially with persistent viruses with high rates of infectivity of the world’s populations. More recent studies have clearly shown that while not definitely causing these cancers, these viruses appear capable of affecting the biology of these tumors in such a way as to make them more aggressive and more resistant to conventional treatments. The term oncomodulatory viruses has been used to describe this phenomenon. A number of recent studies have shown a growing number of ways these oncomodulatory viruses can alter the pathology of these tumors by affecting cell-signaling, cell metabolism, apoptosis mechanisms, cell-cell communication, inflammation, antitumor immunity suppression, and angiogenesis. We are also learning that much of the behavior of tumors depends on cancer stem cells and stromal cells within the tumor microenvironment, which participate in extensive, dynamic crosstalk known to affect tumor behavior. Cancer stem cells have been found to be particularly susceptible to infection by human cytomegalovirus. In a number of studies, it has been shown that while only a select number of cells are actually infected with the virus, numerous viral proteins are released into cancer and stromal cells in the microenvironment and these viral proteins are known to affect tumor behavior and aggressiveness.

Viruses and tumor cell microenvironment: A brief summary.

An infectious etiology for a number of cancers has been entertained for over 100 years and modern studies have confirmed that a number of viruses are linked to cancer induction. While a large number of viruses have been demonstrated in a number of types of cancers, most such findings have been dismissed in the past as opportunistic infections, especially with persistent viruses with high rates of infectivity of the world’s populations. More recent studies have clearly shown that while not definitely causing these cancers, these viruses appear capable of affecting the biology of these tumors in such a way as to make them more aggressive and more resistant to conventional treatments. The term oncomodulatory viruses have been used to describe this phenomenon. A number of recent studies have shown a growing number of ways; these oncomodulatory viruses can alter the pathology of these tumors by affecting cell signaling, cell metabolism, apoptosis mechanisms, cell-cell communication, inflammation, antitumor immunity suppression, and angiogenesis. We are also learning that much of the behavior of tumors depends on cancer stem cells and stromal cells within the tumor microenvironment, which participate in extensive, dynamic crosstalk known to affect tumor behavior. Cancer stem cells have been found to be particularly susceptible to infection by human cytomegaloviruses. In a number of studies, it has been shown that while only a select number of cells are actually infected with the virus, numerous viral proteins are released into the cancer and stromal cells in the microenvironment and these viral proteins are known to affect tumor behavior and aggressiveness.

On the stability of sequences inserted into viral genomes.

Viruses are widely used as vectors for heterologous gene expression in cultured cells or natural hosts, and therefore a large number of viruses with exogenous sequences inserted into their genomes have been engineered. Many of these engineered viruses are viable and express heterologous proteins at high levels, but the inserted sequences often prove to be unstable over time and are rapidly lost, limiting heterologous protein expression. Although virologists are aware that inserted sequences can be unstable, processes leading to insert instability are rarely considered from an evolutionary perspective. Here, we review experimental work on the stability of inserted sequences over a broad range of viruses, and we present some theoretical considerations concerning insert stability. Different virus genome organizations strongly impact insert stability, and factors such as the position of insertion can have a strong effect. In addition, we argue that insert stability not only depends on the characteristics of a particular genome, but that it will also depend on the host environment and the demography of a virus population. The interplay between all factors affecting stability is complex, which makes it challenging to develop a general model to predict the stability of genomic insertions. We highlight key questions and future directions, finding that insert stability is a surprisingly complex problem and that there is need for mechanism-based, predictive models. Combining theoretical models with experimental tests for stability under varying conditions can lead to improved engineering of viral modified genomes, which is a valuable tool for understanding genome evolution as well as for biotechnological applications, such as gene therapy.

Resilience of BST-2/Tetherin structure to single amino acid substitutions.

Human tetherin, also known as BST-2 or CD317, is a dimeric, extracellular membrane-bound protein that consists of N and C terminal membrane anchors connected by an extracellular domain. BST-2 is involved in binding enveloped viruses, such as HIV, and inhibiting viral release in addition to a role in NF-kB signaling. Viral tethering by tetherin can be disrupted by the interaction with Vpu in HIV-1 in addition to other viral proteins. The structural mechanism of tetherin function is not clear and the effects of human tetherin mutations identified by sequencing consortiums are not known. To address this gap in the knowledge, we used data from the Ensembl database to construct and model known human missense mutations within the ectodomain to investigate how the structure of the ectodomain influences function. From the data, we identified an island of sequence stability within the ectodomain, which corresponds to a functionally and structurally important region identified in previous biochemical and biophysical studies. Most of the modeled mutations had little effect on the structure of the dimer and the coiled-coil, suggesting that the coiled-coil compensates for changes in primary structure. Thus, many of the functional defects observed in previous studies may not be due to changes in tetherin structure, but rather, due to in changes in protein-protein interactions or in aspects of tetherin not currently understood. The lack of structural effects by mutations known to decrease function further illustrates the need for more study of the structure-function connection for this system. Finally, apparent flexibility in tetherin sequence may allow for greater anti-viral activities with a larger number of viruses by reducing specific interactions with anti-tetherin proteins, while maintaining virus restriction.

Genetic diversity of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus from cattle in Chile between 2003 and 2007

BackgroundBovine Viral Diarrhea Virus causes significant economic losses in cattle. BVDV has high genomic diversity, with two species, BVDV-1 and BVDV-2, and at least twenty-one subgenotypes for BVDV-1 and four subgenotypes for BVDV-2. Vaccines are important tools to reduce the economic losses caused by this virus. However, vaccine strains must correspond to the antigenic profile of the viruses present in the region where the vaccine is applied. A restricted phylogenetic study with 14 viruses isolated from cattle between 1993 and 2001 showed that the genetic profile of BVDV in Chile consisted of viruses of both species and sub-genotypes 1a, 1b, 1c (currently 1j) and 2a. To determine more accurately the genetic profile of BVDV in Chile, in this study a larger number of viruses obtained from bovines between 2003 and 2007 were typed.ResultsThe study was performed using partial sequences from the 5′ noncoding region (5’UTR) and E2 coding region of the viral genome of thirty-five Chilean viruses isolated from geographic regions that have 84.6% of the Chilean cattle. All tested viruses belonged to species BVDV-1. Eighteen viruses belonged to BVDV-1j subgenotype (51.4%), twelve belonged to BVDV-1b (34.3%) and five belonged to BVDV-1a (14.3%). The Chilean BVDV-1j viruses showed low genetic diversity, both among themselves and with the BVDV-1j present in other regions of the world. This could be explained by a relatively recent introduction of this viral subgenotype in cattle, which agrees with its low geographical distribution worldwide. Otherwise, Chilean BVDV-1b viruses grouped into a single cluster, different even than the viruses present in Argentina and Brazil, countries geographically close to Chile, a process of local evolution that could generate antigenic differences between the Chilean viruses and the viruses used as vaccine strains.ConclusionsThe high presence of viruses of the BVDV-1j subgenotype, which show major antigenic differences with BVDV-1a and BVDV-1b subgenotypes used in the commercial vaccines, suggest that BVDV-1j viruses could be an emergent subgenotype of BVDV in cattle in South America and suggest evaluating an update of the vaccines used in Chile.

Targeted Sequencing of Respiratory Viruses in Clinical Specimens for Pathogen Identification and Genome-Wide Analysis.

A large number of viruses can individually and concurrently cause various respiratory illnesses. Metagenomic sequencing using next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology is capable of identifying a variety of pathogens. Here, we describe a method using a large panel of oligo probes to enrich sequence targets of 34 respiratory DNA and RNA viruses that reduces non-viral reads in NGS data and achieves high performance of sequencing-based pathogen identification. The approach can be applied to total nucleic acids purified from respiratory swabs stored in viral transport medium. Illumina TruSeq RNA Access Library procedure is used in targeted sequencing of respiratory viruses. The samples are subjected to RNA fragmentation, random reverse transcription, random PCR amplification, and ligation with barcoded library adaptors. The libraries are pooled and subjected to two rounds of enrichments by using a large panel of oligos designed to capture whole genomes of 34 respiratory viruses. The enriched libraries are amplified and sequenced using Illumina MiSeq sequencing system and reagents. This method can achieve viral detection sensitivity comparable with molecular assay and obtain partial to complete genome sequences for each virus to allow accurate genotyping and variant analysis.Electronic supplementary material:The online version of this chapter (10.1007/978-1-4939-8682-8_10) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Gangliosides in the Immune System: Role of Glycosphingolipids and Glycosphingolipid-Enriched Lipid Rafts in Immunological Functions.

Although individuals are constantly exposed to infectious agents, these agents are generally resisted by the innate and acquired immune systems. Both the innate and acquired immune systems protect against invading organisms, but they differ functionally in several ways. The innate immune system is the body's inborn defense mechanism and the first line of defense against invading organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Glycosphingolipids (GSLs), which are expressed on the outer leaflet of plasma membranes (Murate et al., J Cell Sci 128(8):1627-1638, 2015), are involved in both innate and acquired immunity (Inokuchi et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 1851(1):98-106, 2015; Nakayama et al., Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 61(3):217-228, 2013; Rueda, Br J Nutr 98(Suppl 1):S68-73, 2007; Popa and Portoukalian, Pathol Biol (Paris) 51(5):253-255, 2003).Recent studies have indicated that innate immunity is not a "nonspecific" immune system. Large numbers of viruses, bacteria, and bacterial toxins have been reported to bind to host surface carbohydrates, a number of which are components of GSLs (Schengrund, Biochem Pharmacol 65(5):699-707, 2003). Binding studies have also demonstrated that some glycolipids function as receptors for microorganisms and bacterial toxins (Yates and Rampersaud, Ann N Y Acad Sci 845:57-71, 1998). These findings clearly indicate that GSLs are involved in host-pathogen interactions.GSLs are composed of hydrophobic ceramide and hydrophilic sugar moieties (Hakomori, Annu Rev Biochem 50:733-764, 1980). The ceramide moiety of sphingolipids and the cholesterol sterol-ring system are thought to interact via hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic van der Waal's forces (Mukherjee and Maxfield, Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 20:839-866, 2004). Additional hydrophilic cis interactions among GSL headgroups have been found to promote their lateral associations with surrounding lipid and protein membrane components. These interactions result in the separation in cell membranes of lipid rafts, which are lipid domains rich in GSLs, cholesterol, glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins and membrane-anchored signaling molecules (Pike, J Lipid Res 47(7):1597-1598, 2006). These GSL-enriched lipid rafts play important roles in immunological functions (Inokuchi et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 1851(1):98-106, 2015; Iwabuchi et al., Mediators Inflamm 2015:120748, 2015; Anderson and Roche, Biochim Biophys Acta 1853(4):775-780, 2015; Zuidscherwoude et al., J Leukoc Biol 95(2):251-263, 2014; Dykstra et al., Annu Rev Immunol 21:457-481, 2003). This introductory chapter describes the roles of GSLs and their lipid rafts in the immune system.

First Report of Tomato spotted wilt virus Infecting Soybean in Korea

The soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) is a legume with worldwide popularity which is native to East Asia. Soybeans are grown for their edible beans and used to create soy vegetable oil and fermented soy foods. To date, a large number of viruses that can infect soybeans have been identified (Hill et al. 2014). Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is a member of the genus Tospovirus in the family Bunyaviridae. TSWV causes serious diseases in many economically important plants including dicots and monocots. TSWV has been identified in soybeans in Iran (Golnaraghi et al. 2001) and Georgia (Nischwitz et al. 2006). In 2016, we collected soybean leaf samples displaying viral disease symptoms such as chlorotic, mosaic, mottling, stunting, and yellowing. 168 samples were collected and categorized by the region that they were collected in. Eight different libraries representing individual provinces were prepared for RNA sequencing using the TruSeq RNA Library Prep Kit v2 in accordance with the manufacturer's instruction...

Increased serum vascular endothelial growth factor is associated with acute viral encephalitis in Bangladeshi children

Encephalitis causes significant global morbidity and mortality. A large number of viruses cause encephalitis, and their geographic and temporal distributions vary. In many encephalitis cases, the virus cannot be detected, even after extensive testing. This is one challenge in management of the encephalitis patient. Since cytokines are pivotal in any form of inflammation and vary according to the nature of the inflammation, we hypothesized cytokine levels would allow us to discriminate between encephalitis caused by viruses and other aetiologies. This pilot study was conducted in a tertiary care hospital in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Viral detection was performed by polymerase chain reaction using patient cerebrospinal fluid. Acute phase reactants and cytokines were detected in patient serum. Of the 29 biomarkers assessed using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test, only vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) was significantly higher (P = 0.0015) in viral-positive compared with virus–negative encephalitis patients. The area under the curve (AUC) for VEGF was 0.82 (95% confidence interval: 0.66–0.98). Serum VEGF may discriminate between virus-positive and virus-negative encephalitis. Further study will be needed to confirm these findings.